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Solving Bitcoin’s gas issue (without a fork)

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Frederic Fosco

Disclosure: The views and opinions expressed here belong solely to the author and do not represent the views and opinions of crypto.news’ editorial.

Every smart contract platform has a fee asset baked in. For example, Ethereum (ETH) has ETH, Solana (SOL) has SOL, but with Bitcoin (BTC), however, things get messy. If you want expressive apps, you usually end up adopting a second network’s economics. 

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Summary

  • Bitcoin doesn’t price computation, only block space. Unlike Ethereum or Solana, BTC’s fee market is built around sat/vB for transaction inclusion, not metering smart contract execution.
  • Execution can move off-chain while settlement stays on Bitcoin. Systems like OpNet run contract logic in a Wasm VM while anchoring payments and final state changes through normal BTC transactions.
  • BTC can function as the gas asset without a new token. By pricing execution costs in satoshis and settling interactions through Bitcoin transactions, apps avoid creating a second fee economy.

On Stacks, for example, you pay fees in STX. On EVM-style Bitcoin layers, you might be told that BTC is the gas token, but it’s typically an L2-native representation with EVM-like conventions (including 18 decimals), and you’re still operating inside that L2 environment. Bitcoin itself, meanwhile, already has a clean fee market, where users bid for block space in sat/vB, and miners prioritize higher fee rates.

With this in mind, what if a smart contract interaction could be initiated and paid for as a normal Bitcoin transaction, with fees in BTC terms (no extra gas token or fork) while the smart part runs elsewhere and stays provably tied back to Bitcoin? OpNet is setting out to provide an answer. 

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Bitcoin doesn’t meter compute (that’s a problem)

Bitcoin’s fee market is excellent at one thing: pricing block space. You compete in sat/vB, miners pick the highest fee rates, and the network stays simple and adversarially robust. What Bitcoin does not do is run a general-purpose execution environment where the chain can measure and charge for arbitrary computation. Bitcoin Script is deliberately stateless and not Turing-complete, specifically lacking loops or gotos, so every node can validate scripts predictably without opening the door to unbounded computation.

That’s why most Bitcoin smart contract approaches end up placing execution on a separate system that can meter compute and run a fee market of its own. Once you have that separate execution layer, it usually comes with a separate fee asset (Stacks, for instance, charges fees in STX).

This isn’t ideal, and a system where you could keep payment within Bitcoin’s native fee market while moving execution elsewhere would be preferable.

Execution isn’t what Bitcoin needs to do

Once you accept that Bitcoin Script is intentionally limited (stateless and not designed for unbounded computation), you start thinking about how to make Bitcoin settle the results and the payments.

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Indeed, execution can happen in a dedicated virtual machine that’s built to run smart contract logic deterministically, while Bitcoin remains the base layer that timestamps, orders, and prices the interactions through its existing fee market.  In OpNet’s design, contract logic is evaluated by a Wasm-oriented VM (OP-VM), while the broader node stack is explicitly built to manage and execute smart contracts using Bitcoin’s existing transaction and UTXO mechanics.

Crucially, this isn’t paired with a new fee asset. Bitcoin doesn’t need to meter computation to be the gas currency. It needs to be the final settlement layer that everything ultimately pays into and anchors to.

What a BTC-paid contract call looks like

Our interaction model follows a simulate-then-spend flow rather than a conventional smart contract execution pattern, with the final execution step taking place as an actual Bitcoin transaction. First, your app calls a contract method in simulation mode. That request goes through a provider to an OPNet node, which executes the contract in its VM and returns a CallResult (including gas/fee estimates) without broadcasting anything to Bitcoin.

If the call is state-changing, you take that CallResult and send it as an execution. At this point, the library builds a Bitcoin transaction, signs it, and broadcasts it to the Bitcoin network. Two points are worth remembering:

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  • Miner fees are Bitcoin-native. You choose a feeRate in sat/vB, optionally add a priorityFee in sats, and set a hard cap on fee spending via maximumAllowedSatToSpend (the parameter is literally named maximumAllowedSatToSpend).
  • The contract target is expressed as a P2OP-style contract address. The contract instance exposes its p2op address format, and transactions reference a “p2op contract address” as the contract destination.

Meanwhile, OpNet’s own compute metering still exists. But it’s priced in satoshis (estimated SATS Gas, refunds in SATS, etc.), so the unit never drifts into a separate token economy. 

Less friction, cleaner incentives

Users no longer have to adopt a second fee economy just to interact with apps. On Bitcoin, fees are already an auction for block space, priced per byte and paid to miners. When contract calls are just Bitcoin transactions, you’re back on familiar ground (with sat/vB fees, mempool churn, and miner incentives), without having to learn a separate gas token market.

Also, the tooling leans into standard Bitcoin workflows such as UTXO handling, provider connections, and even offline/cold signing. Contracts live in a Wasm runtime and are written in AssemblyScript, aiming for Solidity-like expressiveness without pretending Bitcoin Script suddenly became a VM.

Bitcoin as gas, without a second token

The claim that BTC cannot function as gas usually rests on the assumption that the base layer must meter computation to price it. Bitcoin does not meter computation; it meters block space and settles value. 

The solution is to let a virtual machine handle execution deterministically, and then route every state-changing interaction through a standard Bitcoin transaction, where fees are expressed in familiar terms such as sat/vB and capped in satoshis. In our case, this is implemented at the client level through parameters like feeRate and maximumAllowedSatToSpend.

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So maybe BTC-as-gas is truly plausible. Fees stay BTC-native from end to end, while the contract runtime stays WebAssembly-based (AssemblyScript → Wasm), which keeps the logic expressive without changing the fee currency.

Frederic Fosco

Frederic Fosco

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Frederic Fosco, also known as Danny Plainview, is a co-founder of OP_NET and has been involved in Bitcoin since 2013. He launched OP_NET to make Bitcoin natively programmable, unlocking smart contracts and DeFi primitives directly on layer-1. His focus is building real on-chain functionality without bridges, custodians, wrapping, or synthetic Bitcoin, keeping self-custody and decentralization non-negotiable.

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Crypto World

Bitcoin targets $73,000 as crypto bounces despite oil price jitters

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Bitcoin price outlook: buy signals appear
Bitcoin Price
  • Bitcoin is charging toward $73,000 amid a fresh decoupling from the stock market.
  • The surge in BTC price comes despite fears around escalating oil prices.
  • Ethereum, XRP, and Solana are also eyeing momentum as traditional assets falter.

Bitcoin climbed past $72,500 on Friday, extending gains ahead of the Wall Street open.

The cryptocurrency had earlier broken above $72,000 after buyers pushed it out of a consolidation range below $70,000.

The move came as digital assets appeared to shrug off a broader sell-off in equities.

At the time of writing, Bitcoin was trading around $72,518, up roughly 4% over the past 24 hours.

The rally to intraday highs came even as Asian stocks declined and S&P 500 futures slipped amid heightened geopolitical tensions.

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Ethereum followed Bitcoin higher, touching intraday highs near $2,157.

Other major altcoins, including XRP, Solana, and BNB, also posted gains around key price levels.

BTC eyes $73k

Analysts attribute BTC’s uptick to crypto’s resilience in recent weeks despite the slump in sentiment following Israel and the United States’ attack on Iran.

While the war and the blockade of the Strait of Hormuz have stoked fears of inflation amid soaring oil prices, on-chain data suggests whales have used the dip for accumulation.

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The crypto market has largely weathered the initial storm of the Iran war, and analysts are pointing to fresh decoupling from broader risk asset sentiment.

Amid this potential momentum buildup, Bitcoin is targeting its highest level in nearly two weeks.

After dipping to lows of $63,000 on February 28, BTC pumped to above $74,000 on March 4.

Bitcoin Price Chart
Bitcoin price chart by TradingView

Four consecutive red days saw bears push the bellwether crypto asset to lows of $65,000.

Since then, it’s been up on the daily chart as bulls target a fifth green candle.

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If this happens, a breakout above $73,000 could bring the $75k-$78k region into play.

The 100-day simple moving average could offer the next resistance zone around $81,162.

Why could BTC see a sharp pullback?

This downside outlook aligns with potential fragility catalysed by geopolitical uncertainty and global oil pressures.

According to analysts, higher prices reinforce inflation risks and constrain risk appetite as yields rise and the US dollar strengthens.

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Meanwhile, BTC and crypto may also face a downturn in momentum as investors slash odds of immediate Fed rate cuts.

Glassnode highlighted this picture via X:

“An accumulation cluster is forming in the $62k–$72k range. However, its intensity is modest relative to prior phases that preceded sustained expansions. Conviction is building, but the foundation for a mid-term breakout remains thin so far.”

Investors could thus go for profit-taking.

On the downside, immediate support lies at the psychological support level at $70,000. A stronger floor could be at prior lows near $66,250.

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Crypto World

HSBC, Standard Chartered set to receive Hong Kong stablecoin licenses: report

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HSBC, Standard Chartered set to receive Hong Kong stablecoin licenses: report

Banking giants HSBC and Standard Chartered are expected to be among the first institutions to receive stablecoin issuer licenses in Hong Kong, marking a major step in the city’s effort to build a regulated digital-asset ecosystem.

Summary

  • HSBC and Standard Chartered are expected to receive Hong Kong’s first stablecoin issuer licenses.
  • The approvals would fall under the HKMA’s new stablecoin regulatory framework introduced in 2025.
  • The move is part of Hong Kong’s strategy to become a global digital-asset hub while regulating stablecoin issuance.

Hong Kong poised to grant first stablecoin licenses to HSBC, Standard Chartered

The approvals, which could come within weeks, would allow banks to issue stablecoins under Hong Kong’s new regulatory regime overseen by the Hong Kong Monetary Authority (HKMA), according to Bloomberg sources.

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Hong Kong introduced its stablecoin licensing framework through the Stablecoin Ordinance, which took effect in 2025 and requires issuers of fiat-referenced stablecoins to obtain regulatory approval. The law is part of the city’s broader push to position itself as a global hub for digital assets while ensuring financial stability and investor protection.

Officials have said only a limited number of licenses will be granted in the first round after regulators reviewed dozens of applications. Sources said as many as 36 firms initially expressed interest in obtaining stablecoin issuer permits.

Standard Chartered has already signaled plans to issue a Hong Kong dollar-pegged stablecoin through a joint venture, while HSBC’s potential approval is notable because the bank did not participate in the HKMA’s earlier stablecoin sandbox program used to test prospective issuers.

The move highlights Hong Kong’s attempt to strike a balance between innovation and regulation as traditional financial institutions increasingly explore blockchain-based payment systems.

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Stablecoins, cryptocurrencies designed to maintain a stable value by being pegged to fiat currencies or other assets, are widely used in digital-asset markets and are increasingly being considered for cross-border payments and financial settlements.

Hong Kong’s regulatory push comes amid intensifying competition among global financial centers to attract crypto firms and digital-asset investment.

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Prediction Markets Will Scale As Far As Resolution Infrastructure Allows

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Prediction Markets Will Scale As Far As Resolution Infrastructure Allows

Opinion by: David Azubike, lead analyst at Blocksquare

Prediction markets are no longer an experimental corner of crypto. Data now shows something durable: a financial category with sustained volume, diversified participation and increasing institutional attention. Prediction markets are emerging as a new “arbitrage arena” for crypto traders.

Monthly notional volume in prediction markets scaled to more than $13 billion by late 2025 from less than $100 million in early 2024 as markets diversified across verticals, according to a joint research report from Dune and Keyrock

Data showing sustained post election activity
Source: Dune

The implication is straightforward: Prediction markets have scaled beyond their breakout moment. Despite recent regulatory action seeking to restrict prediction markets, trading volumes have continued to rise.

As the category matures, the primary risk is shifting. Liquidity and user acquisition are no longer the binding constraints; trust is.

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An important layer of trust, separate from regulation and custody, is resolution.

Resolution becomes the bottleneck

Resolution architecture matters because the category is expanding into increasingly contentious domains.

Sports markets routinely involve edge cases around officiating, timing and data sources. Political markets hinge on definitions, certification procedures and legal interpretation. Macro markets depend on methodology changes and release schedules.

As the surface area grows, so does the frequency of contested outcomes.

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When resolution is opaque or discretionary, engagement declines quietly. When resolution is adversarial and economically secured, users begin to treat it as financial infrastructure.

This mirrors earlier transitions in crypto. Custody, execution and liquidation were once product features. Over time, they became system properties that institutions expected to be predictable and auditable.

Resolution is undergoing the same transition in prediction markets.

Resolution as infrastructure

Every prediction market makes the same promise. Traders buy conditional claims on a future outcome, and the system must deterministically convert those claims into redeemable value once the event has occurred. If that conversion is slow, ambiguous or discretionary, traders price in resolution risk. When resolution risk becomes material, serious capital concentrates in only a handful of headline markets and avoids the rest of the venue.

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This is why resolution architecture is becoming a very important layer in the modern prediction stack.

Adapted Seer Resolution Infrastructure

In most designs, a market is created and linked to a specific oracle question with explicit resolution criteria. Users trade YES or NO outcome tokens that represent conditional claims. These claims are typically implemented using conditional token standards that can only be redeemed after the oracle finalizes an outcome.

Related: Crypto.com launches standalone prediction market app ‘OG’

Once the event has occurred, an answer is proposed to the oracle. Optimistic oracle designs assume correctness by default, but require the proposer to post a bond. This bond creates a financial cost to submitting an incorrect answer.

A fixed challenge window then opens. During this period, anyone can dispute the proposed outcome by posting a larger bond. Each challenge increases the bond size, raising the economic cost of manipulation.

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If no dispute occurs, the oracle finalizes the answer and the market settles. If a dispute does occur, the case escalates to arbitration, where decentralized jurors rule on the outcome and the decision is enforced back into the oracle state.

From product feature to trust anchor

As prediction markets mature into information infrastructure, trust shifts away from interfaces and incentives toward resolution as architecture: the set of rules, bonds, challenge windows and arbitrage paths that deterministically convert outcomes into enforceable settlement.

The next wave of growth will not be won by whoever acquires the most first-time traders during a single headline event. It will be won by whoever builds infrastructure where resolution is as reliable as execution.

For builders, this changes the core engineering and governance priorities. Resolution rules must be explicit before markets go live, not retrofitted after disputes emerge. Question design must minimize ambiguity at creation, not rely on discretionary judgment at settlement. Bond sizes and challenge windows must scale with open interest, not remain static as markets grow. Arbitration paths must be predictable and enforceable. And resolution latency must be treated as a core product metric, not an operational afterthought.

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When these properties are engineered deliberately, prediction markets stop behaving like speculative products and begin functioning as financial systems people rely on.

Opinion by: David Azubike, lead analyst at Blocksquare