Google and Meta account for 70% of digital advertising and should pay a levy to fund traditional media, according to a new report on media concentration led by researchers from several Australian universities.

The communications, media and internet concentration in Australia report, which tracked the country between 2019 and 2022, found it has the second-highest media concentration in the world. Its newspaper sector alone is dominated by four companies who control 84% of the market.

The international study examined the economic dominance of key players in 15 markets across the world. Only Brazil had a higher media concentration than Australia.

News Corp, Nine Entertainment, Seven West Media and Australian Community Media have increased their share, which was 78% in 2019, due to mergers and acquisitions such as Nine buying Fairfax Media in 2018.

Prof Terry Flew and Dr Rob Nicholls from the University of Sydney’s media and communications department say funds from a levy on digital advertising could be invested in journalism.

“A public interest journalism levy, at a rate of about 2%, would generate funds equivalent to or possibly slightly higher than the payments being made under the news media bargaining code,” Flew said.

The proposal of a mechanism to slow down the demise of the newspaper sector echoes comments by Anthony Albanese in August that social media companies shouldn’t “essentially ride free” on the backs of traditional media.

The prime minister was responding to questions about the possibility of a levy after Meta’s decision to not renew media funding deals.

Flew said a levy would be on advertising revenues derived independently of content, and would include News Corp and Nine’s classified advertising of real estate and cars.

The Global Media & Internet Concentration Project’s analysis of the media, telco and internet markets found that Google and Meta dominated internet advertising and were the second and eighth largest communication and media enterprises operating in Australia.

The study defined media enterprises as any company involved in the communication process.

It warned the increase in concentration – due to the rapid ascent of the global tech companies and the deregulation of media markets – poses a major threat to local journalism.

As audiences desert traditional media for global platforms, the study noted, the ability to regulate for accuracy in news, TV and radio is compromised.

“Collating and analysing publicly available revenue and consumer data, we find that from 2019 to 2022, the majority of Australia’s media, internet and communication markets are moderately to highly concentrated,” the report said.

“These results reflect a long history of media concentration in Australia and a continuing trend seen in many developed economies abroad.”

But Flew said journalism faces an even bigger threat than concentration: the “wholesale dismantling” of news driven by the growth in news deserts, the disappearance of commercial newspapers and commercial news bulletins in the regions and the threat of AI-generated online searches no longer linking to news websites.

“The relationship AI will have to search is going to be quite profound,” Flew said.

He said an earlier study showed that the Seven and Nine networks had cut back their news and current affairs coverage from the early 2000s by 70 to 80%. News Corp closed 100 local print newspapers during the Covid pandemic.

“In the digital age of data-driven capitalism and AI and with the dominance of global digital conglomerates and the possible demise of the news media bargaining code, public interest journalism is in jeopardy,” the report said.

Rupert Murdoch owns the biggest media company, controlling a significant share of newspapers, as well as stakes in streaming, online news and pay TV, but News Corp is not locally owned.

Nine Entertainment is the largest Australian media company, with holdings in television, radio, and digital media.

The major four companies in broadcast TV (Nine, Seven, ABC and Network 10) increased their market concentration from 79 to 87%.

The top four players in radio (Southern Cross Media, ABC, ARN and Nova) jumped in market ownership from 57 to 77%.

16th May: Giovanni Pernice sensationally quits Strictly Come Dancing after nine years on the show.

17th May: Giovanni becomes the centre of an official investigation after three former partners – believed to be Amanda Abbington, Laura Whitmore and Ranvir Singh – make complaints to the BBC.

16th June: Giovanni releases an official statement vowing to clear his name and denies any wrongdoing.

8th July: Strictly confirms Aljaz Skorjanec will return to the series, replacing Giovanni, after initially quitting the show two years ago.

10th July: Amanda Abbington launches fresh legal proceedings to get the rehearsal footage from her time with Giovanni, after allegedly he refused to release the videos.

13th July: Graziano Di Prima is axed from Strictly for “gross misconduct” after footage of his treatment of Zara McDermott is brought to the attention of the BBC.

Graziano quickly broke his silence, apologising for his behaviour in a statement and saying he “deeply regrets it”, adding his “intense passion and determination to win might have affected his training regime.”

15th July: Strictly bosses implement new duty of care protocols, including having a chaperone present throughout all rehearsals.

16th July: Zara McDermott speaks out publicly for first time. She states while the production team were “amazing to work with”, she found the rehearsal room “completely different”, confirming there’s footage of “certain situations”.

19th July: Anton Du Beke is put under the spotlight for his “1970s attitude” and treatment of female celeb stars, particularly after allegedly referring to 2009 partner Laila Rouass as a “p***” after getting a spray tan.

21st July: Paralympian Will Bayley, who has limb condition arthrogryposis, revealed he was encouraged to leap from a table during a dance routine, despite fears. The stunt caused an injury that forced him to withdraw from the show.

22nd July: MasterChef’s Gregg Wallace admits he broke down in tears and got a nasty stress rash on his face during his time on Strictly in 2014.

22nd July: Despite ongoing issues, the Strictly professional cast begin rehearsals for this year’s series.

23rd July: Celebrity agent Melanie Blake claims she was sexually assaulted by an unnamed pro dancer while backstage on the show, and claims she witnessed ageism, rudeness and a rough treatment to the point of injury.

23rd July: Strictly is forced to beef up security after ‘an intruder scales the wall of the rehearsal studio’.

23rd July: BBC boss Tim Davie breaks his silence on the ongoing allegations against Strictly, saying he is ‘deeply sorry’, adding: “Hundreds of people, be they pros, contestants or crew have been part of it and had a brilliant experience.

“At the same time if someone thinks there was something wrong or they want to talk about their experience then of course we want them to raise that with us. Be in no doubt we will take it seriously, listen and deal with it as appropriate.”

24th July: Strictly 2023 star Krishnan Guru-Murthy holds a bombshell interview with Amanda Abbington on Channel 4 news, where she claims she was bullied, with some of the ‘humilation being of a sexual nature’.

27th July: Laura Whitmore releases a statement regarding her Strictly experience, saying “I thought my experience was specific to me but I’ve since learned I was wrong”.

She adds she is not part of the official complaint, but has come forward to support Amanda with the BBC, alongside others.

28th July: Laila Rouass speaks out against the accusations regarding Anton Du Beke, saying she “never felt pressured” by him and “personally insisted on six to seven hours training a day”.

10th August: Graziano breaks his silence on his Strictly axe, saying “these vile, false allegations have ruined my life.”

He also told of the “shocking” end to his friendship with Zara McDermott.

We also revealed that Amanda Abbington was also quizzed for a second time as Strictly execs recruited 15 new staff to monitor rehearsals.

11th August: Just as the investigation was expected to conclude, Amanda made a dramatic intervention. Giovanni was on the brink of being cleared until Amanda handed in more text messages.

24th August: Graziano Di Prima called in top lawyers to sue the BBC and to try to clear his name. He recruited big hitters Whitestone Chambers to fight his corner.

A source said: “They’ve also looked at his BBC contract and believe there are grounds to sue.”

Meanwhile, the BBC also delayed releasing the findings of the probe into Giovanni Pernice. The Sun revealed that the results of the three-month investigation were unlikely to be announced in August.