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Madeleine Sumption looks at immigration policy and the surrounding debate and explains the inherent competing policy objectives and trade-offs.

At Ellis Island in the early 20th century, doctors inspected prospective immigrants for signs of contagious diseases before admitting them to the United States. In Singapore today, migrant domestic workers must show a negative pregnancy test every six months if they want to stay in the country. In many European countries, wealthy investors can secure residence permits with a sufficiently large cheque.

These are all examples of immigration policy. What is it all for? In my forthcoming book—to be published in March by Bristol University Press—I answer this question.

At the risk of stating the obvious, the purpose of immigration policy is to keep people out. Many people more people want to migrate to wealthy countries than will ever gain admission. Governments and their electorates use immigration policies to separate “us” from “them” – to decide who should join their societies and who should not.

This is difficult. To start with, many immigration policies don’t work even half as well as expected. For example, in the book I explain the curious case of an ‘investor visa’ that was supposed to attract venture capitalists and entrepreneurs and ended up admitting well-heeled Russian housewives who liked the London social scene.

But perhaps the bigger problem governments face is that they have to achieve several goals with the same set of policies. Economic impacts, social impacts, fairness, national security, foreign policy… The objectives compete. This presents politicians and the public with difficult trade-offs. Here are just a few examples.

1. Economic and humanitarian goals often conflict

“How much migration does the economy need” is a question I am often asked. It has no answer. One reason is that different migration routes—for family, workers, or refugees—have different purposes and impacts. Who migrates is more important for many economic measures than how many.

Skilled work migration will generally benefit public finances, for example, while humanitarian migration will usually bring costs. As a result, a decline in migration could be positive for the Exchequer if it meant fewer refugees, but costly if it meant fewer highly paid workers.

It is not surprising that immigration routes introduced primarily for ethical, legal or humanitarian reasons—e.g. for partners of citizens or for refugees—are not particularly beneficial economically. That was not the point. It does mean that governments face a trade-off between economic and humanitarian goals.

2. Immigration policy is a blunt tool for dealing with social and cultural impacts

Policy debates often focus on economic impacts, but research suggests that what people care about most is the social and cultural impacts.

The challenge for policymakers is that it is easier to select potential migrants on economic characteristics than on values and attitudes. Attempts to do the latter are usually blunt.

For example, Donald Trump opted for banning entire nationalities his administration perceived to be culturally threatening, often but not always from countries with Muslim majorities. This affected everyone, regardless of their actual beliefs or attitudes.

At the other end of the spectrum, many attempts to select for cultural ‘fit’ feel trivial. For example, the UK’s ‘Life in the UK’ test checks that people applying for permanent status know that the statement, “Britain encourages people to have extreme views and act upon them” is false.

The immigration system is not well equipped to judge people’s views.

3. Different types of fairness conflict

People on different sides of the debate generally agree that fairness matters, but they disagree on what counts as fair.

Take the question of unauthorised migration, and particularly whether and when people without legal status should be deported.

Ethical arguments depend a lot on how the issue is framed. Humanitarian framing presents migrants as victims of an overly restrictive system. Integrity arguments present migrants as rule-breakers who should have complied with the law.

Public debates often present the ethical issue as black and white, relying exclusively on one of these two frames. In reality, elements of both may be true. Unauthorized migrants are vulnerable to exploitation and the process and consequences of being forcibly removed can be brutal. At the same time, it is difficult to imagine a functioning immigration system without any enforcement, and it is not surprising publics expect compliance with the rules.

The bottom line

The life of immigration policymakers is harder than many people expect. Immigration ministers are ruthlessly lobbied by their own colleagues in other departments with competing interests. They manage a sprawling bureaucracy that governs the lives of millions of people, and they get the blame when an individual case they had no idea existed goes wrong.

That’s not to say politicians are innocent victims. Many also over-promise, exaggerate the evidence, and deny the trade-offs.

They are not alone. People on all sides of the debate present the answers as obvious – if only governments had the ‘political will’ to follow their guidance. But the inevitable trade-offs immigration policy presents mean that the reality is messier and more complicated than it might initially seem.

By Madeleine Sumption, Director of the Migration Observatory at the University of Oxford and author of forthcoming book Bristol University Press | What Is Immigration Policy For?

Hollywood actors Tilda Swinton, Javier Bardem and Brian Cox are among more than 80 leading film industry figures to sign an open letter, titled “We Are Dismayed”, condemning the silence of the Berlin Film Festival (Berlinale) on Israel’s genocide in Gaza and its censoring of artists who speak out.

The letter comes on the same day as Booker Prize winning author Arundhati Roy announced her withdrawal from the festival over the same issue amidst comments by German director Wim Wenders against artists bringing up Gaza.

Berliale maintain silence

Other notable signatories include actors Angeliki Papoulia, Saleh Bakri, Tatiana Maslany, Peter Mullan and Tobias Menzies, and directors Mike Leigh, Lukas Dhont, Nan Goldin, Miguel Gomes, Adam McKay and Avi Mograbi. They say that they “expect the institutions in our industry to refuse complicity” in Israel’s slaughter of the Palestinian people.

The 2026 festival is currently underway. Festival head Tricia Tuttle put out a statement in which she backed Wenders:

Artists should not be expected to comment on all broader debates about a festival’s previous or current practices over which they have no control.

The signatories of the open letter “fervently disagree” and insist that the “tide is changing across the international film world”. They also point out that the Berlinale has commented strongly about earlier “atrocities” in Iran and Ukraine and call for the festival to “fulfil its moral duty” to oppose Israel’s genocide and other crimes against the Palestinians. The full text reads:

Open Letter to the Berlinale — Feb. 17, 2026

We write as film workers, all of us past and current Berlinale participants, who expect the institutions in our industry to refuse complicity in the terrible violence that continues to be waged against Palestinians. We are dismayed at the Berlinale’s involvement in censoring artists who oppose Israel’s ongoing genocide against Palestinians in Gaza and the German state’s key role in enabling it. As the Palestine Film Institute has stated, the festival has been “policing filmmakers alongside a continued commitment to collaborate with Federal Police on their investigations”.

Last year, filmmakers who spoke out for Palestinian life and liberty from the Berlinale stage reported being aggressively reprimanded by senior festival programmers. One filmmaker was reported to have been investigated by police, and Berlinale leadership falsely implied that the filmmaker’s moving speech – rooted in international law and solidarity – was “discriminatory”. As another filmmaker told Film Workers for Palestine about last year’s festival: “there was a feeling of paranoia in the air, of not being protected and of being persecuted, which I had never felt before at a film festival”. We stand with our colleagues in rejecting this institutional repression and anti-Palestinian racism.

We fervently disagree with the statement made by Berlinale 2026 jury president Wim Wenders that filmmaking is “the opposite of politics”. You cannot separate one from the other. We are deeply concerned that the German state-funded Berlinale is helping put into practice what Irene Khan, the UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Opinion recently condemned as Germany’s misuse of draconian legislation “to restrict advocacy for Palestinian rights, chilling public participation and shrinking discourse in academia and the arts”. This is also what Ai Weiwei recently described as Germany “doing what they did in the 1930s” (agreeing with his interviewer who suggested to him that “it’s the same fascist impulse, just a different target”).

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All of this at a time when we are learning horrifying new details about the 2,842 Palestinians “evaporated” by Israeli forces using internationally prohibited, U.S.-made thermal and thermobaric weapons. Despite abundant evidence of Israel’s genocidal intent, systematic atrocity crimes and ethnic cleansing, Germany continues to supply Israel with weapons used to exterminate Palestinians in Gaza.

In September 2025, more than 5,000 film workers, including major Hollywood stars, refused to work with industry organisations “implicated in genocide and apartheid against the Palestinian people”.

Featured image via the Canary

Tools such as 3D-bioprinted tissues, organ-on-a-chip systems, and advanced human in vitro models are opening the way to more accurate, human-relevant research approaches – reducing reliance on animals while offering faster, more effective alternatives.

These developments formed the backdrop to a two-day conference in London, hosted by the Royal Society on behalf of the Alliance for Human Relevant Science, which brought together researchers, clinicians, industry leaders, and legislators. Across the programme, speakers examined both the scientific limitations of animal testing and the emerging alternatives that could strengthen the UK life sciences sector while raising ethical standards.

The first day focused on the scientific foundations of human-relevant research, exploring advances in disease modelling and drug development and reflecting on the constraints of existing methods. The second day shifted towards application and policy, considering regulatory reform, the role of real-world evidence, and the practical challenges of transitioning away from animal models.

It was in this context that the conference turned to how scientific, regulatory and political developments might be aligned to accelerate change.

The scientific limits of animal testing

Opening the discussion, Professor Merel Ritskes Hoitinga, professor in evidence-based transition to animal-free innovations at Utrecht University and a former veterinarian, set out why she has come to reject animal testing altogether. Early in her career, she believed that animal research was necessary, operating within the ‘3Rs framework’ of replacement, reduction and refinement. But over time, she said, the “low quality” of much animal research, combined with the “impossibility to predict whether an animal study will work or not”, led her to conclude that animal testing was fundamentally unreliable.

She pointed to the replacement of the rabbit pyrogen test (RPT) with the monocyte activation test (MAT) in the European Union as evidence that animal-free methods can deliver better science. The MAT, she told attendees, is “even better” at detecting pyrogens than the animal-based test it replaced – improving safety outcomes while eliminating animal experimentation.

But the case also illustrated a deeper structural problem. Although the MAT was validated decades ago, it took around 40 years to appear in the European Pharmacopoeia, the official standards reference for the manufacture and sale of pharmaceuticals across Europe. “Providing scientific evidence,” Ritskes-Hoitinga argued, is “not sufficient to make real changes fast.” Without clear leadership from the top and targeted funding, she said, promising alternatives can languish for decades despite being scientifically superior.

To deliver real change in advancing human-relevant science, Ritskes-Hoitinga argued that several factors must come together, including education, legislation and strong governance. She pointed to the need for clear structures – such as a steering committee – to maintain momentum, and stressed that wider societal involvement is also essential.

When clear targets and implementation strategies are in place, change can be delivered fairly quickly. Ritskes-Hoitinga pointed to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States, which has set out a roadmap to make non-animal testing methods the norm for new medications within three to five years.

How non-animal methods deliver better outcomes

To hear more about the FDA roadmap, attendees heard from the Commissioner himself, Dr Marty Makary, who joined the conference via video link. He described the US as undergoing a “paradigm shift” in animal testing, with research and regulation being modernised through technologies such as organ-on-chip systems, artificial intelligence, and computational modelling.

Dr Makary framed this shift in the context of an increasingly competitive global research landscape, noting that much research and development is moving to China. He said the US needs to “compete better by offering the best experience possible for inventors and scientists,” and that a key part of improving competitiveness is to “challenge decades-old assumptions on how we do things,” including on animal testing.

Highlighting the limitations of current methods, Dr Makary highlighted that in 90 per cent of cases where a drug passes animal tests, it is ultimately ineffective in humans. By failing to challenge the dogma that animal testing is effective, Makary said, “we may be missing out on some cures.”

He noted that reducing animal testing also offers clear economic and regulatory advantages: it can shorten review timelines, lower research and development costs, and ultimately speed up patient access to potentially life-saving treatments. “It typically takes six to nine months to do animal testing if all goes well,” he explained. “It’s expensive, and lowering R&D costs also translates into lower prices and allows potentially meaningful cures to reach people faster.” According to Dr Makary, these newer methodologies have received broad support, and the FDA now has a dedicated team focused on advancing this work.

Throughout his contribution, Dr Makary urged attendees to “question everything,” invoking the Royal Society’s motto, nullius in verba. By challenging the assumption that animal testing is necessary, the US is pioneering more ethical and efficient approaches to research.

The case for change in the UK

With examples drawn from both the EU and the US, Steve Race MP, Member of Parliament for Exeter, set out his vision for the UK following the publication of the government’s Strategy to Replace Animals in Science.

Race argued that parliamentary attitudes have shifted in recent years, with the debate on animal testing becoming more pragmatic and less framed solely around animal rights. Echoing points made by Dr Makary and Ritskes-Hoitinga, he suggested that growing recognition of the scientific advantages of non-animal testing methods has helped to move opinion among his colleagues.

The economic case for accelerating the transition to non-animal testing, Race added, is also gaining traction. He pointed to the UK’s position at the forefront of global science, underpinned by what he described as an “incredible life sciences sector.” As countries such as the United States move rapidly to develop and adopt non-animal methods, Race warned that the UK must not fall behind. Maintaining leadership in science and R&D, he argued, will require active support for the sector, including close coordination with UKRI and Innovate UK to ensure the right funding mechanisms are in place.

Beyond Parliament, Race stressed the importance of MPs raising awareness in their constituencies of the benefits of non-animal methods to consolidate public support. “When you talk to people about using animals in medical research,” he said, “they largely won’t welcome it, but they will think it is necessary to cure cancer, as a basic point.” Making the case that there are alternative approaches, he argued – “potentially some better and more effective ways by not using animals” – would ultimately help to broaden public backing for the phase-out of animal methods.

During the Q&A session, Cruelty Free International Public Affairs Officer Lillie Grant asked Race about timelines for delivering the Animal Welfare Strategy. While welcoming the strategy, she said that “one thing missing from it is timelines and markers,” and asked what more could be done to ensure that “timelines are implemented.” Race responded that MPs must continue to signal to ministers that the strategy commands interest from “a broad range of colleagues,” and make use of public platforms to ensure progress is maintained.

Asked about engagement with civil society, Race addressed criticism that the strategy did not sufficiently involve key stakeholders. He acknowledged that the government “can’t do any of this alone,” and said he would raise the issue with ministers if appropriate consultation mechanisms were not already in place.

The future of human-relevant science

Taken together, the discussions at the Royal Society conference underlined that the debate on animal testing has moved well beyond questions of ethics alone. Across science, regulation and politics, there was a shared sense that human-relevant methods are not only more humane but increasingly more effective, economically rational and globally competitive.

With international counterparts already setting clear roadmaps for change, the challenge for the UK is no longer whether to embrace these approaches, but how quickly it can translate scientific momentum into clear timelines, funding, even broader public support, and the buy-in of the wider scientific community.