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Buterin Says Ethereum’s Biggest Bottlenecks Are State Tree and VM, Proposes Deep Fix

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Buterin Says Ethereum's Biggest Bottlenecks Are State Tree and VM, Proposes Deep Fix


Buterin proposes binary state trees and eventual RISC-V VM shift to improve Ethereum’s proving efficiency and execution simplicity.

Vitalik Buterin has proposed execution-layer changes that could fundamentally reshape Ethereum’s core architecture. The project’s co-founder argued that deep modifications to the network’s state tree and virtual machine are necessary to remove what he described as the chain’s biggest proving bottlenecks.

In a detailed post on X, Buterin said that the state tree and VM together account for more than 80% of the constraints that affect proof efficiency and called them “basically mandatory” targets if Ethereum wants to enable scalable client-side and zero-knowledge proving use cases.

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Ethereum Overhaul

He pointed to EIP-7864, a proposal developed by Guillaume Ballet and others, which would replace Ethereum’s current hexary Keccak-based Merkle Patricia Tree with a binary tree built on a more efficient hash function. According to Buterin, the change would shorten Merkle branches by roughly four times, by cutting bandwidth requirements and making client-side branch verification significantly cheaper.

This could reduce data costs for tools such as Helios and private information retrieval systems by 4x, Buterin added. Proving efficiency could also be improved by 3-4 times from shorter branches alone. He expects additional gains if Ethereum shifts to hash functions such as BLAKE3, which is estimated to be three times more efficient than Keccak. Meanwhile, a Poseidon variant could offer up to 100 times improvement, though he noted further security work would be required.

The proposed binary design would also group storage slots into 64-256-slot “pages” and allow more efficient loading and editing of adjacent storage, potentially saving more than 10,000 gas per transaction for applications that access early storage slots. Buterin explained that a prover-friendly state tree would also allow zero-knowledge applications to compose directly with Ethereum’s state instead of building independent trees, while at the same time simplifying the structure and enabling metadata additions for future state expiry mechanisms.

Beyond the state tree overhaul, Buterin made the case for eventually replacing the Ethereum Virtual Machine with a RISC-V-based VM, as he described the idea as longer-term and non-consensus. But he expressed high conviction that it would become “the obvious thing to do” after state roadmap upgrades are complete.

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Possible Deployment Roadmap

The Ethereum co-founder said that a RISC-V VM would be more execution-efficient, more prover-friendly, and simpler, while noting that many existing provers are already written in RISC-V and that an interpreter could be implemented in only a few hundred lines of code. He detailed a phased transition plan beginning with using the new VM for precompiles, then allowing developers to deploy contracts directly in the new VM, and ultimately retiring the EVM into a compatibility layer written as a smart contract in the new system.

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Under that roadmap, users would retain full backward compatibility apart from gas cost changes, which Buterin said would likely be overshadowed by scaling improvements in the coming years.

Buterin’s latest push comes just days after he introduced a quantum-resistance roadmap, which included proposals to replace consensus-layer BLS signatures with hash-based schemes such as Winternitz variants.

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Crypto World

xAI Moves to Retire $3B Debt Early as Musk Advances the Planned SpaceX IPO

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Nexo Partners with Bakkt for US Crypto Exchange and Yield Programs

TLDR

  • xAI plans to repay $3 billion in high-yield bonds earlier than expected to reduce debt before major corporate steps.
  • The company will redeem the bonds at $117 on the, which reflects recent price movement.
  • Early repayment may trigger penalty costs because the bonds were expected to remain outstanding for two years.
  • Musk merged xAI and X under one structure while working to simplify debt across his companies.
  • Lenders were informed that both X and xAI debt will be repaid, although funding sources were not disclosed.

xAI will retire $3 billion of bonds early as the company reshapes its debt, and SpaceX prepares for a public listing, and lenders track rapid changes across Musk’s merged businesses.

Early Bond Repayment by xAI

xAI will repay the bonds at 117 cents as pricing data shows the debt rising toward that level. The move follows June’s bond sale that featured a coupon of 12.5 percent.

The redemption comes even though the structure suggested a longer timeline before repayment. The step underlines efforts to simplify obligations before further corporate actions.

Bank sources say early repayment usually triggers charges tied to make-whole terms, and xAI may incur such costs. They also state, “The process continues without disclosure of funding sources.”

Trace data shows the bonds climbed about three points on Monday to near 117 cents. The shift reflects rising expectations of an early call.

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Debt Strategy and Business Consolidation

Musk merged xAI with SpaceX under a single holding entity last year. The group now carries about $18 billion of combined obligations.

Lenders say repayment plans also cover debt tied to X, formerly Twitter. They add that Morgan Stanley told them repayment will proceed as arranged.

X borrowed about $12.5 billion during Musk’s takeover, while xAI raised $5 billion through loans and bonds. Both moved under xAI Holdings after restructuring.

xAI revised its debt documents to restrict asset transfers and set a ceiling for future secured borrowing. Those provisions protect collateral for lenders.

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SpaceX Prepares for IPO Filing

SpaceX may file confidentially for an IPO this month, according to sources. They say valuation targets exceed $1.75 trillion.

The company has not accessed bond markets, unlike X and xAI, which faced heavy servicing costs. X paid large monthly interest amounts, while xAI used cash rapidly.

SpaceX bought xAI last month and intends to expand data center capacity. The combined business holds a valuation of about $1.25 trillion.

People familiar with the matter say Musk plans to advance the offering timeline. They also report ongoing financing work tied to debt reduction.

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Morgan Stanley declined to comment when contacted. Representatives for X and xAI did not respond to requests for comment.

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Iran Crypto Outflows Rose 700% After US-Israel Attack

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Iran Crypto Outflows Rose 700% After US-Israel Attack

Iran’s top crypto exchange saw a significant spike in crypto withdrawals within minutes of the US and Israel launching strikes in Tehran on Saturday. However, a widespread internet outage curbed additional outflows.

In a post on Monday, Elliptic said crypto outflows from the Nobitex exchange surged by more than 700% to over $500,000 within minutes of the first airstrikes, with a chart showing that outflows reached nearly $3 million in a single hour later that day. 

Crypto outflows on Nobitex from late February to March 1. Source: Elliptic

Elliptic said the sharp rise in outflows “potentially represents capital flight from Iran,” with its initial tracing showing that many of those funds were sent to foreign crypto exchanges.

“This allows funds to be moved out of Iran while avoiding some of the scrutiny of the global banking system,” Elliptic said.

However, crypto outflows from Nobitex fell sharply after Saturday, which fellow crypto forensics platform TRM Labs attributed to the Iranian regime enforcing strict internet blackouts.

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Iran’s internet connectivity reportedly fell by approximately 99% shortly after the conflict unfolded, TRM noted.

TRM also opposed Elliptic’s conclusion that capital flight is leaving Iran, stating:

“It appears that the country’s crypto ecosystem is not showing signs of acceleration or capital flight, but instead experiencing a downturn in both transactions and volume as the regime enforces strict internet blackouts.”

The crypto outflows come as the US and Israel seek to topple the current Iranian regime and wipe out its nuclear and missile programs. Iran responded with airstrikes of its own on neighboring countries, creating further instability in the region.