Myanmar has endured protracted ethno-political conflicts for decades. Since the military coup in February 2021, the situation has escalated to a new level. Technology is playing a significant role in the evolution of the civil war, as both sides add new weapons to their arsenals. Over the past three years, the People’s Defense Forces (PDFs), the armed wing of the pro-democracy National Unity Government (NUG), and various ethnic armed organizations (EAOs) have increasingly relied on technology to challenge the Tatmadaw, Myanmar’s military. Drones and 3D-printing have become vital tools in their strategies. Likewise, the Tatmadaw has also adopted new technology, particularly drones, learning from its adversaries. This article explores how these new technologies are shaping Myanmar’s conflict theatre and their broader implications for modern warfare.
Drones
Resistance groups in Myanmar have weaponized drones in innovative ways, adapting commercial drones like DJI quadcopters and hexacopters, and even developing 3D-printed drones like the Liberator MKI and MKII to carry explosives. Some parts for these drones are allegedly sourced from online e-commerce platforms in border regions or smuggled across the border from China and Thailand, reducing the financial burden on resistance groups. The addition of bomb-release mechanisms and other modifications have made drones a versatile weapon, allowing for more efficient and effective strikes. Drones are primarily used for targeted bombings on military bases and fortified camps. These systems enable the insurgents to bypass difficult terrain, such as dense jungles and mountainous regions, and strike military camps and outposts that would otherwise be hard to reach with conventional ground assaults.
Decentralized groups that fall under the PDF umbrella such as the Federal Wings, a coalition of various resistance factions, the Kloud Drone Team, a group focused on developing drone technology for targeted attacks, and the Angry Bird Drone Rangers, known for their creative use of drones in combat, have been particularly active in advancing drone technology for combat, using it to carry out targeted strikes, surveillance, and intelligence-gathering in difficult-to-reach areas. These groups have advanced drone technology by modifying commercial drones to carry explosives and increase their payload, range, and endurance for longer missions. They have also developed and attached makeshift bombs to drones for targeted strikes and used drones for real-time surveillance and reconnaissance to gather intelligence on military positions. Additionally, some have explored swarm tactics, deploying multiple drones in coordinated strikes to overwhelm defenses and complicate countermeasures.
Other groups that have successfully integrated drones into their operations are the Karenni Nationalities Defense Force (KNDF), the Black Eagle Defense Force (Myinmu), the Three Brotherhood Alliance (Arakan Army, Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army, and Ta’ang National Liberation Army), and the Chin National Army.
During their Operation 1027 offensive in late 2023, armed resistance groups dropped over 25,000 bombs on military bases, severely affecting the Tatmadaw’s capacity to respond and reinforce its positions. In April 2024, close to 30 improvised kamikaze drones were used to target the junta’s military headquarters, a major military airbase, and the junta leader’s residence in Naypyidaw. Drones are also being used in targeted assassinations aimed at high-value targets in Myanmar, as seen on November 6, 2024, when the military intercepted three bomb-laden drones targeting junta leader Min Aung Hlaing at Naypyidaw Airport. The attack was thwarted, adding to a series of similar attempts on his life using drones in recent months.
The ability to conduct precise bombings and surveillance using drones has allowed resistance groups to significantly disrupt the Tatmadaw’s operations in strategic areas like Naypyidaw, Sagaing Region, and Rakhine State. This shift highlights the reality that drones are no longer mere surveillance tools but vital components in offensive military strategies. Additionally, drones have proven effective for psychological warfare, generating fear within the military as the unpredictability of drone strikes makes it difficult for the Tatmadaw to anticipate and defend against attacks.
The use of drones by the insurgents has been driven by a younger generation of tech-savvy insurgents, including former engineering students and hobbyists. International support has played a crucial role in the development of drones for Myanmar’s armed groups. The Myanmar diaspora has provided financial backing, and experts from abroad have contributed to the technical development of drones. Videos of successful drone strikes, and the assembly of drone components are frequently shared on social media, drawing attention and funds to the resistance efforts. Moreover, Myanmar’s armed groups have been inspired by other conflict zones, particularly Ukraine, where drone warfare has been extensively utilized. The design of the Liberator MKI drone, modeled after Ukraine’s Punisher drone, and the use of drones for bombing operations like tactics employed by the Islamic State in the Middle East, illustrate the global exchange of knowledge in drone warfare.
3D-Printing
3D-printing has also been utilized by the PDFs primarily to manufacture weapons. The PDFs have suffered severe weapons shortages throughout the conflict, and 3D-printing has provided them with a viable, affordable, and mobile source of alternative weaponry. 3D-printers are portable, relatively cheap (costing approximately $300), widely available, and easy to use. Manuals for 3D-printed firearms (3DPFs) are easily available online and this, coupled with the accessibility of 3D-printers, makes 3DPFs an attractive option for circumventing weapons shortages.
Among the resistance groups that are known to have used 3DPFs in Myanmar are the KNDF and the Salingyi Special Task Force. The most frequently used 3DPF in the Myanmar conflict is the FGC-9. The FGC-9 is a 9mm, semi-automatic pistol caliber carbine rifle. It is a hybrid 3DPF i.e., most of its components are 3D-printed except some which are modified using commercial hardware store materials. These include, for example, steel tubes that are modified into the barrel of the firearm. It doesn’t require specific metalworking skills and experience, and is noted to be the easiest and most practical semi-automatic homemade firearm to construct.
The use of the FGC-9 in Myanmar makes it the first 3DPF to have been used in an active combat zone. There were at least 21 cases of reported 3DPF incidents in Myanmar between 2021 and July 2024. In September 2023 and May 2024, a cache of 60 and 30 FGC-9s that were believed to have been in possession of the PDFs were seized by the junta. The FGC-9 has also been discovered at least twice by the Indian authorities in the Manipur region during the conflict between the Kuki and Meitei militias. These weapons were alleged to have been smuggled in from Myanmar. In this regard, 3DPFs have been used mostly in ambush operations against military bases and police stations where conventional arms are seized. They have also been used in training personnel and for manning checkpoints.
Like drones, the manufacture of 3DPFs has been pioneered by the younger generation of insurgents. Groups such as the KNDF were noted to consist mostly of millennials and Gen Zers who are digitally proficient and have the capabilities to experiment and engage in the manufacturing of these weapons, which require a substantial amount of computing knowledge. Makeshift 3D-printing workshops have been set up in apartment complexes and in the jungle. The PDFs have also received technical support in terms of troubleshooting and the sharing of information pertaining to 3DPFs from the online 3DPF community.
Apart from firearms, insurgent groups in Myanmar have utilized 3D-printing to manufacture weapons components. Learning from the Ukrainian conflict, the PDFs have used 3D-printing to manufacture stabilizers for mortars similar to “candy bombs” that have been used widely in Ukraine and bomblets that can be dropped from commercial drones. Other weapons parts such as magazines have also been made using 3D-printing.
The Impact of These Technologies
The operational impact of drones in Myanmar has been profound. They have provided an asymmetric advantage to the smaller, less-equipped resistance forces and have had a substantial impact on insurgent operations against the much superior Tatmadaw. With the increasing availability of commercial drones, smuggling networks and some level of external support, Myanmar’s rebel forces have rapidly weaponized drones for both tactical and psychological impact. Despite their growing use by the resistance forces, the Myanmar military has struggled to adapt to drone warfare. In the first two years of the anti-junta resistance, resistance groups used drones as a low-cost method to level the playing field against the better-equipped military.
Since late 2023, the Myanmar military has reportedly acquired advanced drones from China, Russia and Belarus. The introduction of anti-drone jammers by the military has been one response to mitigate the effects of drones, though resistance fighters have been able to bypass these countermeasures. This continuous technological adaptation between the military and resistance groups indicates that the conflict will involve an ongoing technological arms race as both sides strive to outmaneuver each other.
Compared to drones, 3DPFs have taken on a more secondary role in the conflict. 3DPFs still suffer from durability issues because they are privately manufactured and are made from polymer plastics as opposed to metals. The quality and lethality of 3DPFs are highly dependent on the skill of the maker. If made well, they can be comparable to factory-made arms. However, in most cases, they do suffer from defects and conventional firearms have the edge. Nevertheless, they have been effective as a supplementary firearm that is able to provide an asymmetric advantage to insurgent groups and complement their conventional arsenals.
In conclusion, the integration of drones and 3D-printing technologies by Myanmar’s resistance groups has transformed asymmetric warfare. Drones offer a low-cost yet high-impact means of challenging the Tatmadaw, enabling surveillance, precision strikes, and psychological warfare. While not a replacement for traditional arms, 3D-printed weapons complement resistance strategies and help circumvent weapons shortages. Technological weapons may not always be as physically destructive as traditional ones. However, they can have a stronger psychological impact and boost the morale of those who use them. The adoption of technology is reshaping the tactics of Myanmar’s civil war and could inspire other insurgent groups worldwide to adopt similar tactics, further altering the global landscape of modern warfare.
