A European Central Bank working paper challenges the notion that decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs) deliver on their promise of distributed governance, finding that token holdings and voting power across four major DeFi protocols are heavily concentrated among a handful of actors.

The study examined governance structures at Aave, MakerDAO, Ampleforth, and Uniswap using data from late 2022 and mid-2023. The researchers analyzed the top 100 token holders and top 20 voters for each protocol, reviewed 248 governance proposals, and attempted to trace the real-world identities behind pseudonymous blockchain addresses.

The findings land at a moment when governance disputes are roiling some of the very protocols examined in the study, and DeFi projects more broadly are grappling with whether the Labs-plus-DAO structure is fit for purpose.

Top 100 Holders Command Over 80% of Supply

Across all four protocols, the top 100 holders controlled more than 80% of the total governance token supply during both snapshot periods. At Aave and Uniswap, the top five accounted for roughly half of all holdings. MakerDAO was the relative outlier, with the top five holding around 36%.

The concentration proved sticky over time, with distributions remaining largely unchanged between October 2022 and May 2023.

When the researchers dug into who sits behind the top addresses, they found that for most protocols, roughly half or more of holdings traced to addresses associated with the protocols themselves — encompassing treasuries, founders, and developer allocations — or to centralized and decentralized exchanges.

Protocol-associated addresses held 43% of Uniswap’s UNI supply. Centralized exchange holdings were particularly notable at Aave (16%) and Ampleforth (19%). Binance emerged as the dominant exchange holder across all four protocols, with holdings ranging from 2% to 15% of total supply.

The researchers cautioned that available data doesn’t distinguish between tokens held by exchanges on their own behalf versus those held in custody for customers.

Delegates Dominate Voting

The most active voters on governance proposals turned out to be predominantly delegates — entities to whom smaller token holders assign their voting power. This dynamic has long been a known issue in DAO governance, where low voter turnout and outsized whale participation leave a small group of recurring participants shaping protocol decisions.

The top voter at Uniswap in both snapshots was a16z, the venture capital firm, which saw its delegator count grow from 100 to 125 over the study period. At Aave, the protocol’s own smart contracts held the top-voter position.

Of the 68 top voters identified across all protocols, the researchers could not determine the identities of roughly one-third to nearly half of them. Among those they could identify, individuals made up about 21%, followed by Web3 companies at 19%, university blockchain societies, and VC firms.

Uniswap had the highest delegation rate at 27%, with its top 18 voters holding more than half the delegated power.

The ECB team also systematically categorized the 248 proposals and found that “risk parameters” — covering loan-to-value ratios, liquidation thresholds, borrowing rates, and debt ceilings — were the most common, accounting for 28%. Asset listing proposals made up 23%.

Implications for Regulation

The findings carry direct implications for the ongoing policy debate over how to regulate DeFi. The EU’s Markets in Crypto-Assets regulation exempts services provided in a “fully decentralized manner,” but the ECB researchers argue the protocols they studied fall well short of that standard.

Governance token holders, protocol developers, and centralized exchanges have frequently been proposed as potential regulatory entry points. However, the researchers concluded that the ambiguity surrounding who actually controls governance makes all three difficult to use in practice.

“It is not always clear who in the end is responsible or can be held accountable based on publicly available data,” the authors wrote.

The paper also drew parallels between DeFi governance and traditional corporate shareholder governance, noting that both systems suffer from low voter turnout and outsized influence by a small number of recurring participants.

But DeFi lacks the institutional safeguards — proxy voting rules, stewardship codes, disclosure requirements, and fiduciary obligations — that help mitigate those dynamics in public companies. As DAOs increasingly adopt formal legal structures, the researchers suggested that hybrid models integrating traditional legal frameworks with blockchain-based governance may ultimately be needed.

This article was written with the assistance of AI workflows. All our stories are curated, edited and fact-checked by a human.

• Vietnam is investigating a huge crypto fraud involving Vemanti Group.
• As crypto use grows, Vietnam is increasing rules and oversight.
• Nearby countries are also cracking down on online financial scams.

Hanoi, Vietnam — Authorities in Vietnam have initiated what officials believe to be one of the biggest online crime cases involving online assets, as more regions strive to counter online financial fraud.

Vemanti Group Becomes Focus of Public Attention

According to a state-related Vietnamnet source, police believe there is a large-scale scheme that drew billions of US dollars from investors. Although authorities have not released a precise assessment of the overall losses, initial reports indicate the financial impact could be substantial.

The inquiry has made Vemanti Group the center of attention, as it was reported only after the Ministry of Public Security publicly announced the case and local media subsequently covered it.

The company said that its board chairman Nhan Vuong and board member Chien Tran have been indicted in connection with the case.

In a statement, Vemanti argued that authorities in any jurisdiction had not informed it before the indictments were released. The firm said it has engaged U.S. legal representation as it evaluates the case and decides its next steps.

Vemanti also linked the probe to ONUS Pro, a digital-asset site identified as the center of the alleged scheme.

Vietnam Crypto Market Growth Draws Increased Scrutiny

The case comes as Vietnam remains one of the world’s most active cryptocurrency markets. The case comes as Vietnam remains one of the world’s most active cryptocurrency markets. Chainalysis reported that Vietnam ranked fourth in its 2025 Global Crypto Adoption Index, and digital assets are widely used at the grassroots level.

That authorities are paying more attention to fraud signals a broader shift toward a more restrictive approach as cryptocurrencies grow in popularity.

Regional Crackdown Expands Beyond Vietnam Borders

Vietnam is not the only country seeing a crackdown. The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) of neighboring India recently arrested a suspect in Mumbai who helped traffic people into scams in Myanmar.

Investigators claim that the victims were coerced into taking part in internet fraudulent schemes, such as cryptocurrency investment scams and international user romance scams.

The events underscore rising cooperation in the region with governments trying to stem cyber-enabled financial crimes related to digital assets.

CBI Arrests Kingpin of Transnational Cyber Slavery Network pic.twitter.com/15Yc1YLO4D

— Central Bureau of Investigation (India) (@CBIHeadquarters) March 26, 2026

• Solana price dropped 5% to near $83 on Friday.
• The altcoin fell as Bitcoin and Ethereum declined to $66,500 and below $1,990, respectively.
• Risk assets sank as Brent oil surged to $110 amid Iran war concerns.

Solana (SOL) price has slipped more than 5% as altcoins mirror declines in Bitcoin (BTC).

The downturn coincided with a dramatic surge in oil prices to $110 per barrel, fueled by geopolitical tensions in the Middle East, with President Donald Trump’s announcement of a deadline extension for Iran seemingly not assuaging sellers.

Iran has largely dismissed US claims that talks have shown progress.

Solana drops to $83 amid crypto dip on oil surge

Solana’s price plunged to a low of $83 during Friday’s session, marking a decline of over 5% within 24 hours.

This aligned with the broader crypto market’s vulnerability to macroeconomic shocks, with Bitcoin sliding to below $66,500.

BTC’s drop below $67k marks the first time bulls have seen these levels since March 9.

Losses triggered massive long liquidations across top altcoins.

The sharp decline for BTC came as oil prices topped $110 despite US President Donald Trump’s announcement of a 10-day extension to the deadline for Iran to open the Strait of Hormuz.

Trump had paused the move to strike Iran’s energy infrastructure by 5 days, but even then, the additional five days appear to have done little to soothe supply concerns.

US stocks faltered as the international benchmark Brent crude futures rose 2.7% to $110.94 a barrel.

Crude gains reversed earlier losses following the early March spike, which also saw BTC prices sink to support.

As risk appetite got a fresh bump, Solana’s trading volume spiked 13% to over $4.1 billion.

The surge in intraday volume across major exchanges signals panic, as the unwinding of leveraged positions has led to significant losses for long positions.

Solana price outlook

From a technical standpoint, Solana’s descent to $83 breached the 50-day exponential moving average (EMA) at $87.50, a critical support that now risks further erosion toward the 200-day EMA near $78.

The relative strength index (RSI) flashed oversold territory at 28, hinting at a potential short-term rebound if oil volatility eases.

However, the moving average convergence divergence (MACD) histogram remains deeply negative, confirming bearish momentum tied to the BTC correlation, which stands at 0.92 over the past month.

A sustained oil price above $110 could push SOL toward $75, but a de-escalation in Hormuz tensions might spark a relief rally back to the $95-$100 level.

Investors might also be looking to monitor US inflation data, with this likely to dictate the crypto market’s next move.

Intercontinental Exchange, the parent company of the New York Stock Exchange, on Friday announced a new $600 million direct cash investment in Polymarket, completing the exchange operator’s structured investment arrangement with the prediction market platform.

The investment is part of a broader equity capital fundraise by Polymarket, according to a press release from ICE. The company also expects to purchase up to $40 million in Polymarket securities from existing holders, which would close out its obligations under the deal first announced in October 2025. The valuation of Friday’s investment is expected to be disclosed after Polymarket completes its fundraising.

ICE made an initial $1 billion direct investment in Polymarket at that time, in what was the largest single investment ever made in a prediction market company. That deal valued Polymarket at roughly $8 billion pre-investment and established ICE as a global distributor of Polymarket’s event-driven data.

ICE’s interest in Polymarket extends beyond a passive equity stake. In February, ICE launched the Polymarket Signals and Sentiment Tool, a product that normalizes real-time and historical prediction market data into structured feeds for institutional traders. The tool packages Polymarket’s crowd-sourced probability assessments as market signals alongside traditional financial instruments.

Prediction Market Arms Race

The capital injection comes amid an unprecedented wave of institutional investment into prediction markets. Rival platform Kalshi raised approximately $1 billion at a $22 billion valuation earlier this month in a round led by Coatue Management. Polymarket is reportedly targeting a valuation of around $20 billion in its current round, according to The Wall Street Journal.

Prediction market monthly volumes have grown 130-fold since early 2024, making it one of the fastest-growing categories in finance. Open interest across platforms crossed $1 billion for the first time in February.

Regulatory Crosswinds

The investment arrives against a complex regulatory backdrop. The CFTC recently issued an advance notice of proposed rulemaking signaling its intent to build a comprehensive regulatory framework for prediction markets. Meanwhile, some lawmakers have introduced legislation that would block prediction markets from offering contracts on war and sports outcomes.

At the state level, regulators continue to challenge the industry — Arizona’s attorney general recently filed criminal charges against Kalshi, alleging it operates an illegal gambling business in the state.

Still, institutional capital appears undeterred by the regulatory uncertainty. For ICE, the completion of its nearly $2 billion investment arrangement signals that one of the world’s largest market infrastructure operators views prediction markets not as a passing novelty but as a category that may eventually sit alongside equities, futures, and fixed income.

This article was written with the assistance of AI workflows. All our stories are curated, edited and fact-checked by a human.