Manchester United are aiming to build a squad capable of dealing with Champions League football on top of the Premier League and Bruno Fernandes’ future could be key to that

It has already been a busy transfer window for Manchester United, but the Red Devils are far from done. A number of senior stars have confirmed transfer exits, and there could be more on the way.

As far as incomings are concerned, Ederson looks like being the first of many, with a deal to sign the Atalanta midfielder all but done. Several permanent exits have been announced already, with Rasmus Hojlund and Casemiro chief among them, while Andre Onana’s departure looks as though it will be another loan.

Last summer brought plenty of headlines about Marcus Rashford and Bruno Fernandes, and it’s more of the same right now. Rashford’s Barcelona loan didn’t bring a permanent deal, leaving his future up in the air, but we could soon have a resolution regarding captain Fernandes after he opted against a Saudi Pro League switch in 2025.

We’ve also got more on another of United’s midfield targets as the rebuild begins following Casemiro’s exit. Here are our latest lines from around Old Trafford.

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Fernandes ‘decides to stay’

Bruno Fernandes has told his Manchester United team-mates he plans to stay, according to talkSPORT. A final decision on the captain’s future isn’t expected until after the World Cup but there is not thought to be any fear that he might leave.

Fernandes was targeted by several Saudi clubs last summer but decided to stay put. There are reports of renewed interest from clubs in the gulf this year, especially Al Nassr, who could have Portugal boss Roberto Martinez in the dugout next term, but the midfielder’s decision to stay put is believed to be family-related and therefore unlikely to change.

The 31-year-old has started both of Portugal’s first two World Cup group games, grabbing an assist in the 5-0 victory over Uzbekistan. Martinez’s team need a win in their final group game against Colombia to top their group but are still guaranteed to progress as runners-up if they draw.

Nmecha asking price set

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Germany star Felix Nmecha is among the midfielders linked with United as they look to restock their midfield after Casemiro’s exit and a potential departure for Manuel Ugarte. However, they’re unlikely to get the 25-year-old on the cheap.

Nmecha, who spent time with Manchester City as a youngster and played for England at youth level, would qualify as a homegrown player. According to Kicker, though, he is valued at £86million by his club Borussia Dortmund and doesn’t have a release clause in his deal.

The 25-year-old didn’t start any of his country’s World Cup qualifiers but has been a mainstay for Julian Nagelsmann at the tournament proper. He started all three group games, scoring on his major tournament debut as Nagelsmann’s team beat Curacao 7-1.

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The expanded men’s World Cup in 2026 has given fans the chance to cheer on the exploits of first-time qualifiers, some of which many people might previously have struggled to locate on the map. Standout moments have already included Curaçao’s goal-keeping heroics in earning a draw against Ecuador and Cabo Verde’s upset by pegging back reigning European champions Spain.

But one story has largely gone under the radar: the participation of Uzbekistan. According to some pundits, Uzbekistan should have collapsed into violent chaos years ago. Instead, it has become the first central Asian state to play on football’s grandest stage. Behind this lies a fascinating tale of geopolitics and peace.

In the 1990s, overwrought geopolitical analysis portrayed the region as dangerous and in desperate need of western salvation. This was particularly true of the US. In 1997, Zbigniew Brzezinski, national security advisor to Jimmy Carter and an éminence grise of the US foreign policy establishment, dubbed central Asia “the Eurasian Balkans” on what he called the “grand chessboard” of great-power competition.

At the intersection of Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan sits the Ferghana Valley. With its complex patchwork of borders, enclaves and ethnic minorities, it became the focal point of this discourse of danger. A 1999 policy report written by American academics warned that, without US help, the valley could become “a breeding ground of terrorism” and “a hotbed of religious and political extremism”.

Like most parts of the world, Uzbekistan has had its problems. Rapid economic growth has led to serious urban pollution, and youth unemployment is high, thanks to the growing population. Like other countries in the region, a lack of political pluralism limits its ability to effectively grapple with these problems.

But the dire scenarios predicted by western analysts have not come to pass. For my research on borders, nation-building and geopolitics in the Ferghana Valley, I interviewed policymakers across the region. They all stressed the region’s ability to draw on historic cultural ties and practices of statecraft to manage the difficult transition from Soviet republics to independent nations.

After Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan gained their independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, the Ferghana Valley states inherited a set of complicated and disputed borders originally drawn as internal Soviet boundaries in the 1920s. These have proved contentious – yet in recent years the three countries have made a series of deals to transfer territory and fully delimit their boundaries.

The Khujand Declaration of March 2025 defined the boundary between the three valley states and put an end to decades of tension. In terms of international experience, this counts as remarkably quick progress.

Resolving border tensions

It is in the Ferghana Valley itself where progress is most visible. I saw border tensions ratchet up in the late 1990s and early 2000s. But in the past decade, a new generation of leaders has not only resolved territorial disputes but pushed a significant growth in cross-border economic, social and cultural connections. They have reopened dozens of previously closed border crossings, relaxed red tape and incentivised cross-border trade. This has led to significant increases in regional trade and has eased ethnic tensions.

In October 2025, the first Ferghana Valley Peace Forum brought governments and civil society together under a new platform for dialogue. A key organiser of the event, Akramjon Ne’matov, the first deputy director of the Institute for Strategic and Regional Studies, an influential state-affiliated thinktank in Tashkent, emphasised that “the forum’s goal is to strengthen trust and good-neighbourly relations, promoting a shared vision of the region as a space of cooperation and mutual benefit”.

According to Ne’matov, it serves as a robust response to the vision presented in Brzezinski’s “grand chessboard”. This outdated narrative was not only flawed but risked becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy. It sowed mistrust rather than fostering development.

Despite initiatives like the ill-fated Central Asian Union, central Asia has not succeeded in creating formal EU-style regional institutions. Western academics have routinely dismissed such attempts as mere “virtual regionalism”. But research from St Andrews University shows that informal arrangements between authoritarian governments to respect each other’s sovereignty and not allow single external powers to dominate have led to the emergence of an effective, informal regional order premised on personal diplomacy, stability and coexistence.

Shared destiny

This digs deep into historical notions of shared destiny. As a politician in Tashkent put it to me: “The important thing to keep in mind is that we are one home in central Asia, one culture.” As the dissolution of Yugoslavia in the 1990s, and the wars in Armenia and Azerbaijan and Russia and Ukraine wars suggest, central Asia has arguably been more successful at resolving post-cold war ethnic and border disputes than Europe.

In March this year, I joined a sell-out crowd at an Uzbek Super League match, cheering on Ferghana Neftchi as they beat Tashkent Lokomotiv 3-1. The game took place in an impressive modern stadium in Ferghana. This confounded the predictions of 1990s analysts who saw the Ferghana Valley as the supposed locus of all the region’s ills.

Fellow fans were already looking forwards to the World Cup – although one wryly repeated to me a quip by comedian Hojiboy Tojiboev that the Uzbek team would “go there, eat ice-cream, and then come back”.

On the pitch, this first foray onto football’s biggest stage has been challenging for the “White Wolves”, as the Uzbek team is known. But away from football, in our age of border closures and ratcheting geopolitical tensions, the west can learn a lot from Uzbekistan about how to manage regional tensions and plan shared futures.

Donald Trump has threatened to impose a 100 per cent tariff on all goods from any country that imposes a digital services tax on US tech giants, posted on social media

Donald Trump has issued a stark warning that he’ll impose a “100% TARIFF” on all goods from any nation that introduces a digital services tax targeting US tech giants.

“Numerous European Countries have been discussing the imminent implementation of a Digital Services Tax on American Companies,” the US president declared in a Truth Social post on Friday.

“Some of these Countries are close ⁠to actually doing this. Please let this statement serve to represent that any Country that imposes such a Tax will immediately be met with a 100% TARIFF on any and all Goods sent to the United States of America.”

Trump emphasised that the proposed tariff would take precedence over any existing trade agreements with the US, “whether implemented, signed or not”.

The announcement follows French President Emmanuel Macron’s declaration last week that France would stand firm against Trump’s pressure and maintain its digital tax on American tech firms, reports the Mirror.

His remarks came just hours before the two leaders convened at the G7 summit in Evian-les-Bains, France.

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Prior to departing for the summit, Trump had cautioned that the US would “have no choice” but to slap 100 per cent tariffs on French wine unless Paris withdrew its digital tax.

“I asked [Macron] not to charge American companies, and if they do, I have no choice but to charge a 100% tariff on all champagnes and all wines coming out of France,” Trump told The New York Post. “All [Macron] has to do is get rid of the sales tax, and he wouldn’t have that kind of pressure.”

France has imposed a 3 per cent digital services levy since 2019 on revenues generated by firms earning over €25 million domestically and €750 million globally.

Trump has consistently resisted international attempts to tax or regulate America’s technology behemoths. Last year, he warned of potential tariffs against any nation implementing such policies, declaring on Truth Social in August that digital taxes and regulation “are all designed to harm, or discriminate against, American Technology”.

This latest warning arrives before Trump’s July 4 deadline for both the European Union and the United States to finalise a tariff agreement capping duties on most EU exports at 15 per cent.

The transatlantic deal was reached in July last year, when discussions between Trump and European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen in Scotland concluded months of commercial uncertainty.

Digital taxation wasn’t included in that arrangement and continues to be a contentious issue between Washington and the European bloc.

The NSPCC made more than 200 referrals to the authorities last year after calls reporting children being left home alone

The issue of when a child can safely be left at home by themselves is a divisive one.

There’s also no clear legal standpoint on it with the issue of when a young person is ready to be left at home unaccompanied ultimately being a judgement call for individual parents and their kids.

While UK law doesn’t actually stipulate a specific age when you can leave a child unattended it does make clear that it constitutes an offence to leave a child alone “if it places them at risk”. For the biggest stories in Wales first sign up to our daily newsletter.

Now the NSPCC has said it made 202 referrals to Welsh agencies, including the police and children’s services, following contacts to its helpline about children being left home alone or unsupervised last year.

Such referrals are made if charity staff believe additional support or intervnetion is needed.

The NSPCC suggests children under 12 are “rarely mature enough” to be left unaccompanied for extended periods and states children under 16 shouldn’t be left alone overnight.

The charity emphasises that babies, toddlers, and very young children should “never” be left unattended.

A charity spokesman said: “There is no legal age limit for leaving children but the NSPCC recommends not leaving a child aged under 12 years old at home alone. Also, if a child has expressed worries about being left without a parent or carer, those should be taken seriously and respected.”

Bearing this in mind parents and guardians are encouraged to exercise their finest judgement when determining whether their child is sufficiently mature to be left unaccompanied, for instance at home or in the vehicle, and to avoid leaving them alone until they’re entirely confident their child is prepared for such independence – particularly if they’ll be looking after other children or animals while their parent or guardian is absent.

While the UK Government doesn’t stipulate a specific age or criteria for when a child can be left unattended it does provide legal guidance and endorses NSPCC recommendations.

The UK Government website notes: “Parents can be prosecuted if they leave a child unsupervised ‘in a manner likely to cause unnecessary suffering or injury to health’.”

The NSPCC stresses a ‘one-size fits all’ approach doesn’t work for the matter of children being left home unaccompanied as every child develops differently.

The NSPCC advice states: “Learning to be independent is an important part of growing up.

“Between work, appointments, and other family commitments every parent may need to leave their child home alone at some point so it’s good to have a plan in place.

“You might wonder what age your child should be before they can be left alone at home. But there’s no ‘one-size-fits all’ answer.

“Every child is different so build up their independence at their pace – and check in with them to make sure they feel safe.”

Their guidance continues: “A child who isn’t old enough or who doesn’t feel comfortable should never be left home alone. If this is the case it’s best to look into childcare options that might work for your family.”

The NSPCC goes on to specify that young children should never be left alone – even if their parent or guardian is just popping out briefly.

“Infants and young children aged nought to three years old should never be left alone – even for 15 minutes while you pop down the road. This applies not just to leaving them home alone but also in your car while you run into the shops,” the NSPCC says.

“While every child is different we wouldn’t recommend leaving a child under 12 years old home alone, particularly for longer periods of time.

“Children in primary school aged six to 12 are usually too young to walk home from school alone, babysit, or cook for themselves without adult supervision.

“If you need to leave them home it’s worth considering leaving them at a friend’s house, with family, or finding some suitable childcare.”

Providing advice to parents of secondary school-aged youngsters the NSPCC adds: “Once your child reaches this age you could talk to them about how they’d feel if they were left alone at home.

“Whether they’re 12 years old or almost 18 years old there might be reasons that they don’t feel safe in the house alone.

“Just because your child is older doesn’t necessarily mean they’re ready to look after themselves or know what to do in an emergency.

“It can help to go over the ground rules and remind them how to stay safe at home.

“Remember – you should never leave a child home alone if they don’t feel ready or if you don’t feel they’re ready.

“Sometimes it’s just better to leave them with someone – particularly if they’re nervous or have complex needs.”

Scotland‘s World Cup hopes are on the brink after finishing third in Group C following a 3-0 defeat to Brazil – and their fate is out of their hands.

Steve Clarke’s side defeated Haiti in their opening match before a slim 1-0 loss to Morocco. A dispiriting defeat to Brazil left them with just three points and a goal difference of -3, as well as an agonising wait to determine if they’ll make it into the knockout rounds.

From 12 groups only the best eight third placed finishers will progress meaning Scotland need four teams to finish third with fewer than three points or a worse goal difference than them (-3) to qualify.

The Scots may not know their fate until the final group stage matches have been played meaning a wait until Sunday and the conclusion of Group J’s fixtures. South Africa’s victory over South Korea in Group A and Ecuador’s stunning triumph over Germany in Group E are already significant blows that have severely narrowed their route to the knockouts.

How can Scotland qualify for the knockout rounds?

Following their defeat to Brazil, Scotland’s progress to the next stage of the tournament – which would put them in the knockout rounds for the very first time – is out of their hands.

Over the next few days, certain results will need to fall in their favour in order for them to book a spot in the last-32, but what scenarios from each group will hand the Scots a place in the next stage of the competition? Scotland need at least four results to go their way.

Here is how the third-placed sides currently stand:

Friday 25 June

Fixtures

Norway vs France (Group I) – 8pm BST

Senegal vs Iraq (Group I) – 8pm BST

Cape Verde vs Saudi Arabia (Group H) – 1am BST

Uruguay vs Spain (Group H) – 1am BST

Egypt vs Iran (Group G) – 4am BST

New Zealand vs Belgium (Group G) – 4am BST

What Scotland need

In Group I, a draw between Senegal and Iraq would be the ideal result. Iraq would need to win 3-0 to qualify while for Senegal, even a one-goal win would be enough. Scotland require a draw between Senegal and Iraq, or a narrow Iraq win.

In Group H, while at least one of Cape Verde or Saudi Arabia are guaranteed to better Scotland’s total, a victory for Spain against Uruguay would result in the third-placed team only finishing on two points. Scotland require a Spain win.

Group G sees the crucial match played between Egypt v Iran. A win for Egypt means the team finishing third could have fewer than Scotland’s three points. Scotland require an Egypt win, as long as Belgium v New Zealand is not a draw.

Saturday 26 June

Fixtures

Croatia vs Ghana (Group L) – 10pm BST

Panama vs England (Group L) – 10pm BST

Colombia vs Portugal (Group K) – 12.30am BST

DR Congo vs Uzbekistan (Group K) – 12.30am BST

Algeria vs Austria (Group J) – 3am BST

Jordan vs Argentina (Group J) – 3am BST

What Scotland need:

In Group L, should Croatia earn a point or better against Ghana then the third-place finisher would have more points than Scotland. Scotland need Ghana to beat Croatia by three goals.

Group K sees DR Congo and Uzbekistan face off for third place. A draw would be ideal or a win for Uzbekistan by three or less goals, with the Asian side’s goal difference set at -7 after two games. If DR Congo win they will finish third with four points. Scotland need DR Congo to fail to win.

In Group J, Austria and Algeria sit second and third respectively and both have three points. Algeria have the worse goal difference heading into their meeting so Scotland need an Austria win, and by two goals or more. Alternatively, if Algeria win by four or more goals, it would leave Austria’s goal difference -4 or worse.

Here are the full group stage standings:

Who will Scotland play in the knockout rounds if they advance?

There are still plenty of scenarios and results which will influence Scotland’s route through the knockout rounds should they get there. But, having finished third in Group C, they are set to face Group A winners Mexico in the last-32 in Mexico City.

If Steve Clarke’s men win that tie they could then face England in the round of 16, also in Mexico City, providing Thomas Tuchel’s men finish top of Group L and then defeat probable opponents DR Congo or Senegal in the last-32. If the Scots defeat their old enemy, then a rematch against Brazil could be on the cards otherwise they could face one of Japan, Ivory Coast or Norway in the quarter-finals as things stand.

Georgia Harrison’s ex, Stephen Bear, has been convicted of breaching the terms of the restraining order against him.

Georgia Harrison has broken her silence after her ex-boyfriend Stephen Bear was convicted of breaching a restraining order put in place to protect her.

The Celebrity Big Brother winner, 36, pleaded guilty to breaching the restraining order after he launched an online campaign against Georgia, 31.

He had already served time in prison for illegally sharing a sex tape of of the former couple on OnlyFans. But after Bear was released from prison in early 2024, he embarked on a social media campaign in which he accused Georgia of being part of a conspiracy against him, with his guilty verdict being the result of a hidden plot.

Some of the posts were viewed millions of times and many included images of Georgia along with defamatory statements, reports the Mirror.

Georgia, who was pregnant at the time, chose not to go to court this week to see Bear convicted. She told The Sun: “I didn’t go to court this week. I didn’t stay away because it’s too hard.

“I stayed away because being there would give him the one thing he has always wanted, and the one thing the manosphere machine runs on: attention. A reaction and a spectacle.”

She added that “attention was worth more” to Bear “than the consequences” of his crimes and that the ‘manosphere system’ was rewarding him for that. As such, she wanted to focus on changing “the culture“.

Love Island star, Georgia, who gave birth to her first child, Sahara Jean, in October, has long campaigned for the law to better protect women and girls from acts of violence.

She first rose to fame when she appeared on Love Island in 2017, but by 2021, she had become an activist. Her work as a campaigner for women has earned her an MBE, making her the first Love Islander to be honoured in this way.

In January 2021, Bear was arrested after he uploaded a sex tape of himself and Harrison, that he had secretly recorded, to his OnlyFans account.

The following year, he was found guilty of voyeurism and disclosing private, sexual photographs and films. He was sentenced to 21 months in prison and given a five year restraining order forbidding contact with Harrison. He served just half of his sentence before he was released from prison.

During the criminal and civil cases, Georgia waived her right to anonymity in order to raise awareness about the impact ‘revenge porn’ can have on victims. The mum-of-one has also campaigned to increase the support for women and girls who have faced sexual crimes.

Georgia’s campaigning led to the government’s crackdown on image-based abuse through reforms to the Online Safety Act, which passed in October 2023.

Bear is due to be sentenced next month at Chelmsford Crown Court.

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Uruguay’s World Cup run ended in tatters with a red card shown at the very end of their defeat to Spain

The World Cup clash between Spain and Uruguay exploded in the final stages with Agustin Canobbio shown a straight red card for a horror challenge.

The 27-year-old was involved in several heated moments before he was sent off for a reckless challenge on Pau Cubarsi. He was fortunate to not be punished earlier in the clash for numerous bad tackles and his reaction to Nico Williams’ clash with Nicolas de la Cruz.

The latter was one of four players shown yellow cards before Canobbio’s dismissal with referee Ismail Elfath doing well to keep the game flowing, much to Spain’s anger.

Eventually, he was left with no choice but to send Canobbio off as he launched into a challenge on Cubarsi with Marc Cucurella among those furious at the incident.

As he made his way off the pitch, the two benches clashed with Canobbio attempting to return to the field of play to continue arguing against his dismissal.

The full-time whistle followed soon after the flashpoint with Canobbio heading over towards the officials before being dragged away from the volatile situation by his team-mates.

It has been a particularly disastrous tournament for Marcelo Bielsa’s side as they failed to beat both Cape Verde and Saudi Arabia.

They also lost Manuel Ugarte to injury with goalkeeper Fernando Muslera also asking to be subbed off, as per Bielsa, following his error that led to Spain’s goal.

Their failure to claim any points against Spain resulted in Cape Verde finishing in second and qualifying for the knockout stages with a draw against Saudi Arabia, who finished bottom, enough to get the job done.

A meeting with World Cup holders Argentina in the round of 32 is their reward with Lionel Messi and Co. already confirmed as group-winners.

The latest set of results have also made it mathematically impossible for Ghana, England and Egypt to be eliminated. The latter are due to face New Zealand in just a few hours as they look to try and set up a favourable round of 32 tie.

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The closure will begin from 6am on Saturday, June 27

One of Manchester’s busiest roads is set to close this weekend, as drivers have been urged to plan ahead.

The A57 Mancunian Way is set to be closed for an annual safety inspection and maintenance. It will come into place at 6am on Saturday, June 27 and be lifted at 6am on Monday, June 29.

Both sides of the carriageway will be shut from the Chester Road roundabout to Fairfield Street, as well as all slip roads.

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The essential work includes safety checks, inspections, and repairs.

A signed diversion route will be in place, Manchester city council have said.

Diversion routes include:

• Trinity Way
• Great Ancoats Street
• Bridgewater Viaduct
• Whitworth Street West
• Whitworth Street
• Fairfield Street

Drivers have been warned of disruption amid the closure and have been advised to allow extra time, check routes and consider other ways to travel.

The agricultural economy was the backbone of wealth in ancient Greece. Food brought people together, whether in smaller groups at a wine-drinking symposium, or the entire community in a sacrificial feast of epic proportions. In The Odyssey, the ancient Greek epic poem, Odysseus’s son joins one of these early feasts – a community barbecue of 100 cattle.

Researchers have long recognised the economic, political and social importance of food in ancient Greece. But one key question has never been fully settled: how were animals actually raised within this system?

For nearly a century, academics have been locked in a debate over the organisation of ancient Greek animal husbandry. At one extreme is the idea of large, semi-nomadic herds moving seasonally across the landscape in search of pasture. At the other is a more intimate picture: smaller herds integrated into everyday farm life, feeding on local fields and crop by-products. In other words, were animals part of a mobile pastoral system, or woven tightly into mixed crop-and-livestock farms?

Along with an interdisciplinary team of archaeologists and scientists, I have analysed one of the largest assemblages of animal remains in the ancient Greek world from the site of Azoria on Crete to address this debate. We published our findings in a recent article.

When early historians first addressed the question of how animals were reared and plants cultivated in ancient Greece, large herds of sheep and goats managed by semi-nomadic groups were a common sight in the modern Greek landscape. These herds moved from summer uplands to winter lowlands, searching for seasonal pastures.

American geographer Ellen Churchill Semple’s book The Geography of the Mediterranean Region: Its Relation to Ancient History was the first to suggest this seasonal husbandry also existed in ancient Greece.

However, another school of thought has suggested a different model for the economy. Based on interviews with elderly shepherds and farmers, archaeologist Paul Halstead has suggested in several articles and in his 2014 book Two Oxen Ahead. Pre-Mechanized Farming in the Mediterranean, that animals were mostly reared in smaller herds attached to farmsteads. They largely grazed on fallow fields or nearby rough pasture, he argued, or consumed fodder crops grown for them. In this model, plants and animals were integrated.

Over the decades, academics have lined up on either side of this debate. But until recently, it was impossible to directly assess the diet and mobility of ancient Greek animals and settle this debate.

Science meets history

The application of stable isotope analysis – a technique that measures forms of the same chemical element, called isotopes, which have slightly different weights – has given researchers their first opportunity to test these competing ideas using the remains of animals from ancient Greek sites.

By measuring the mix of isotopes preserved in ancient bones and teeth, scientists can work out what an animal or person ate and drank, and even gain clues about where it lived. This is because food and water leave chemical signatures that become locked in the body over time.

Atoms have multiple isotopes that vary their mass due to the number of neutrons. So, stable isotope analysis, which examines the amounts of different isotopes in archaeological remains, can answer questions about the sources (food, water, air) that contributed to the makeup of an animal (or human).

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The ratios of carbon and nitrogen isotopes provide evidence for the sorts of food consumed by ancient animals. The ratios of oxygen stable isotopes provide a seasonal signature for the growth of tooth enamel. By combining analyses of these different isotopes, it’s possible to directly address the agropastoral debate and assess the seasonal diet of animals.

The first applications of these techniques to ancient Greek animals only served to complicate the situation. Due to expense and availability of samples, only a handful of animals were tested at sites like Knossos on Crete or Argilos in northern Greece. Rather than one model, a range of different animal husbandry strategies were identified in the samples analysed from these sites. However, the small samples size meant researchers could not draw firm conclusions, other than confirming that animals in ancient Greece were raised using a mix of different farming method. Unfortunately, how this mix showed up in the ancient economy was unclear.

Our study at the site of Azoria on Crete is the first designed to explicitly test these two competing hypotheses in an analysis of 50 sheep and goats.

Testing the competing hypotheses

Azoria is, in many ways, the ideal site for examining the economy that underpinned the early development of city-states. It was suddenly abandoned right before the start of the classical period (around 510–323BC), in the early 5th century BC. This abandonment provides a snapshot of life at this moment, as the people left behind their trash (including plentiful animal and plant remains) and also their bulky pottery. The intact ceramic assemblages have helped us assess the function of different buildings and rooms.

Near the top of the hill are a series of public buildings, including the communal dining building. Here, citizens regularly gathered to feast and discuss the matters of the day. On lower terraces are several houses for elite citizens.

My analysis of over 200,000 animal remains from these spaces provides unprecedented insight into household dinners and public feasts. I found that the same animals, of the same ages, were consumed in houses and in the communal dining building. Mostly goats followed by sheep, pigs and cattle.

More interestingly, the food was prepared differently in feasts than at home, with professional butchers (likely sacrificial priests) wielding cleavers and chopping up cuts of meat for feasts, while household preparation was done using standard knives to slice meat.

While this might suggest that the same animals were used in both kinds of meals, the isotope analysis shows that this is not the case. The carbon values from animals eaten at home match up with oxygen values taken from different points along the same tooth, which change with the season. This indicates that these animals were mainly raised near local farms and ate plants that changed with the seasons.

However, the animals consumed in public feasts diverge from this pattern, showing an opposite pattern where carbon isotope values diverge from oxygen isotope values. This pattern indicates a movement between summer uplands and winter lowlands. Others show a flat trend to carbon isotopes, probably indicating they consumed specially grown fodder crops year round.

These results demonstrate that the ancient Greek food economy was more complicated than academics initially assumed. Rather than raising animals or plants together or separate from one another, both strategies existed. That said, it looks like the political unity of city-states may have been strengthened by large public sacrifices that provided meat for all citizens, made possible through the organised, specialised management of communal herds.

These conclusions give us a new appreciation for the communities that formed ancient Greek city-states. They worked together to support one another and to feed one another. To create a setting for feasting and political life. After all, you are defined by more than just what you eat, but also who you eat with, and, of course, what your food ate.