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Two micrograms is an almost unimaginably small amount. It weighs less than a tiny fragment of a grain of table salt. Yet adults need only around this amount of vitamin B12 each day, depending on the guideline used, to support red blood cells, nerves and DNA production.

In 2026, it is 100 years since George Minot and William Murphy reported that a liver-rich diet could treat pernicious anaemia, then a frequently fatal disease. Their work transformed medicine and eventually led scientists to identify vitamin B12 as the substance in liver that treated the disease.

But the route to that breakthrough began with an unexpected clue from animal experiments. The American physician and pathologist George Whipple had shown that liver helped dogs recover from anaemia caused by blood loss. Blood-loss anaemia happens when the body loses red blood cells through bleeding. Pernicious anaemia is different: the problem is not bleeding, but poor absorption of vitamin B12. Even so, Whipple’s experiments pointed researchers towards liver as a source of a powerful blood-forming factor.

Patients with pernicious anaemia who had been close to death often improved dramatically within weeks of eating liver-rich diets. The success of liver treatment eventually led scientists to isolate the deep red compound now known as vitamin B12, or cobalamin.

Often mistaken

Despite decades of research, vitamin B12 deficiency remains common, particularly among older adults, vegans, vegetarians and people with conditions that affect absorption. Some people do not consume enough B12 because it is naturally found mainly in foods from animals, including meat, fish, eggs and dairy products. Others struggle to absorb it properly.

This becomes more common with age. Some older people produce less stomach acid, which is needed to release B12 from food. Others develop autoimmune gastritis, in which the immune system damages stomach cells involved in producing acid and intrinsic factor, the protein needed for vitamin B12 absorption. Weight-loss surgery and some medicines used for diabetes or acid reflux can also reduce absorption.

The symptoms of deficiency can develop slowly and are often mistaken for normal ageing. People may feel exhausted, weak or short of breath. Some develop numbness or tingling in their hands and feet, poor balance, memory problems or what many describe as “brain fog”. These symptoms are not specific to B12 deficiency, so persistent tiredness, tingling or balance problems should be checked rather than assumed to be a simple vitamin problem.

People at higher risk, including vegans, vegetarians, older adults and those taking medicines that affect stomach acid or diabetes treatment, may need testing or supplementation advice from a health professional.

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Vegan and vegetarian diets may lack certain nutrients – here’s how to get more of them

Doctors have traditionally linked tiredness in B12 deficiency to anaemia. Without enough vitamin B12, the bone marrow cannot produce healthy red blood cells. Instead, it releases unusually large and immature cells that carry oxygen less effectively around the body.

But anaemia may not be the only reason people with low B12 feel exhausted.

Low energy

In humans, vitamin B12 is directly needed by only two enzymes, the proteins that help chemical reactions happen in the body. One helps the body make DNA, which cells need when they divide. The other helps mitochondria process certain fats and protein building blocks. Mitochondria are the tiny structures inside cells that help turn food into usable energy.

This mitochondrial role has attracted growing interest from researchers studying ageing, muscle function and vitamin B12 status. A 2026 study explored what happens when cells do not have enough B12. Researchers found that low B12 could interfere with the DNA inside mitochondria and reduce energy production in laboratory models of skeletal muscle (muscle cells studied outside the human body).

A related study in aged female mice found that B12 supplementation improved several signs of mitochondrial health in muscle, including the number and structure of mitochondria. Together, this work points to one possible reason why some people with low B12 report fatigue before obvious anaemia is detected.

These findings do not mean vitamin B12 supplements can reverse ageing or act as an energy booster for people whose B12 levels are already normal.

Scientists have suspected a link between B12 and mitochondrial function for many years, because one of the two B12-dependent enzymes works inside mitochondria. Earlier research has also suggested that low B12 status may be linked with poorer muscle function in older adults, although much of this work is observational and cannot prove cause and effect.

So if you’re feeling persistently tired, is it worth paying for vitamin B12 injections at a wellness clinic or medispa? For most people, no. B12 injections are an established treatment for diagnosed deficiency, particularly when absorption is impaired, and the NHS uses hydroxocobalamin injections for vitamin B12 deficiency anaemia.

But there is little evidence that B12 shots boost energy, weight loss or performance in people whose B12 levels are already normal. The more useful first step is to find out what is causing the tiredness.

The story of vitamin B12 is unusual because the body needs so little of it, yet the consequences of deficiency can be profound. Long before scientists understood its chemistry, doctors recognised that something in liver could restore strength, appetite and vitality to desperately ill patients.

A century later, researchers are still finding that this tiny cobalt-containing molecule does more than prevent anaemia. It may also help explain how cells maintain energy and function as the body ages.

Dubbing it a “chaos initiative”, the government, other political parties, business leaders and trade unions argue it will deprive hospitals and hotels of much needed staff, and damage hard-won relations with the European Union, leaving non-EU member Switzerland isolated in a very risky world.

Netflix’s period thriller sees Christian Bale star as a detective investigating murders alongside a young Edgar Allan Poe.

Enthusiasts of period dramas and detective series are being encouraged to watch a mystery thriller featuring Hollywood icon Christian Bale as a seasoned investigator.

The film, which premiered in 2022 and is currently available on Netflix, stars Bale as Augustus Landor, who probes a string of killings at the West Point Military Academy alongside Edgar Allan Poe (portrayed by Harry Melling), a young military cadet.

The stellar ensemble also features the likes of Gillian Anderson, Toby Jones, Timothy Spall and Robert Duvall in his final film before his death in 2026.

The Pale Blue Eye is the production in question and follows retired detective Landor, an alcoholic, as he examines the hanging of Cadet Leroy Fry (Steven Maier).

Landor, a widower, wrestles with his own inner turmoil, including the fraught relationship with his daughter Mattie (Hadley Robinson).

Viewers flocked to IMDb reviews to express their opinions on the film, with one commenting: “Absolutely perfect play by Christian Bale. I watched it having the same gloomy and cold weather out the window. It made me feel the climate of the plot.

“The movie is more than worth watching. It will become a classic and maybe a new opening for movies based on the atmosphere set out in Poe’s novels. And I do hope for it with my whole heart.”

Another fan enthused: “I’ve never seen anything nor experienced storytelling like that!” A third viewer commented: “There are no words to how I felt watching this movie. Christian Bale is phenomenal, as always.

“I would rank this as one of the best movies I have ever seen and if you are into the Macabre genre, it would be impossible to not enjoy this, from start to finish.”

A final viewer remarked: “Absolutely stunning. This film may just be the most beautiful movie I’ve seen in a very long time. Not only is the casting impeccable, but the writing is superb. So many stellar actors, not just the major stars! Every role was properly cast.”

The film draws upon the work of American author Louis Bayard, depicting a murder mystery set at West Point in 1830, during which the young Edgar Allan Poe served as a cadet.

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Poe, a celebrated American writer and poet, was renowned for his tales of mystery and the macabre. He emerged as a pivotal figure in Romanticism and Gothic fiction within American literature, and is widely regarded as one of the founding fathers of the detective fiction genre.

Actor Melling, who portrays the legendary author in the film, garnered particular acclaim for his performance.

The Pale Blue Eye is currently available to stream on Netflix.

Going back to that game in New Jersey last week, Aston Villa captain and Tartan Army sweetheart John McGinn was the one to start on the bench.

He was also left out completely for the win against Curacao at Hampden.

McGinn not playing would seem incredible given his contribution in a Scotland jersey.

Across his 86 caps he’s got 20 goals – fifth on the all-time list – and 10 assists. Just as crucially, he is in the form of his life having just led Villa to the Europa League trophy.

But there may be a reluctance to tinker too much with a midfield of McTominay, Lewis Ferguson, Ben Gannon-Doak and Ryan Christie which purred so perfectly, particularly in the first half.

“It’s amazing to think there could be a Scotland team without John McGinn in it,” said former forward James McFadden.

“I would expect him to come in. I just hope it is unfortunately one of the midfielders that miss out and not one of the strikers.

“I’d really like to see the two strikers because I think they offer so much. Could we see a starting team in the first game without John McGinn?

“I wouldn’t put it past Steve Clarke, to be honest, but because he doesn’t start the first game doesn’t mean he’s not going to be a massive player in the games after that.”

There is a valid point that McGinn perhaps has been rested given his 53-game season.

“I don’t think we need to start John in the first game if I’m being honest,” said former Scotland midfielder Leanne Crichton.

“I’m trying to think back to the Euros in terms of John and his output. I felt he was tired at that tournament.

“I felt it was a long season. I’m looking at the output over the last number of months in terms of the European campaign at Villa, the travel associated with that and the injury that he had at the point in the season.

“Do we really need to use him for the start?”

Billionaire philanthropist Melinda French Gates claimed Jeffrey Epstein “could have been stopped” in an interview published after lawmakers questioned her ex-husband, Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates, over his ties to the late sex offender.

In a wide-ranging interview with The Guardian, French Gates hit out at the U.S. justice system, claiming it “didn’t do its job” when it came to Epstein, who died in jail seven years ago after prosecutors said he sexually exploited and abused dozens of underage girls.

“The justice system didn’t do its job. It did not do its job. Full stop. This could have been stopped,” French Gates told the newspaper, referring to Epstein and his crimes.

“I think that’s why, finally, we are having a reckoning in society. If we don’t want children to be harmed, the justice system has to work,” she added.

The interview, published Saturday, comes just days after Gates testified about Epstein during a closed-door House Oversight Committee hearing. He told lawmakers Epstein attempted to blackmail him with explicit details about his personal life, including his extramarital affairs.

The tech mogul said Epstein “sought to build an image of legitimacy around himself, using connections to reputable and powerful people to deflect scrutiny and attempt to rehabilitate his reputation,” according to a copy of his opening remarks.

Gates also emphasized that he “never witnessed nor had any indication that Epstein was engaged in ongoing criminal conduct.”

French Gates said she met Epstein one time, and the experience gave her nightmares, according to The Guardian.

“Have you ever in your life been around somebody that you just know is evil? … We need to listen to our feelings about people,” she told the newspaper.

“He was an abhorrent human being, a horrid man, and so in these situations – this is a hard topic for me, you need to know that – my heart goes out to the young girls.”

Now, French Gates is advocating for more women to take on positions of power, and has recently committed $215 million toward funding women’s healthcare initiatives, according to The Guardian.

“When women step into their full power, we have a different lens on society. We are the bedrock of society. We are the bedrock of the family,” she said.

French Gates split from her now-ex husband in 2021, following 27 years of marriage. Three years later, she stepped down from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, citing a desire to “move forward into the next chapter of my philanthropy.”

KYIV, Ukraine (AP) — A Ukrainian drone attack killed one person and injured three in Russia’s southern Krasnodar region, local officials said Saturday, as part of Kyiv’s campaign of strikes on military and energy targets deep inside Russia.

Drone debris sparked a fire at a sea terminal, local Gov. Veniamin Kondratyev said. He did not give details, but Russian news outlets reported that a Black Sea export terminal transporting terminal crude oil, petroleum products and liquefied gas in the village of Volna was damaged.

Ukraine’s General Staff did not comment on the Krasnodar strike Saturday, but said that its forces had hit an oil preparation and pumping station overnight in Russia’s Volgograd region, as well as Russian-occupied areas in Ukraine’s Donetsk and Zaporizhzhia regions.

The attack comes after Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy said his country’s forces had struck several military and energy infrastructure sites deep inside Russia, including a military factory that he said supplied components for Russian drones and missiles.

He said Wednesday that Ukrainian FP-5 Flamingo long-range missiles had hit the facility in Cheboksary, in the Chuvashiya region, more than 900 kilometers (560 miles) from the front line.

More than four years since the start of Russia’s full scale invasion of Ukraine, the more than 1,000-kilometer (620-mile) front line has remained largely static as swarms of drones hinder advances. As a result, both sides have increasingly relied on long-range strikes.

Last week, Russian President Vladimir Putin vowed to strengthen air defenses after Ukrainian attacks set ablaze an oil terminal in St. Petersburg and also hit a nearby naval base, casting a cloud over a showcase economic forum in his hometown.

Elsewhere, Russian attacks injured nine people in Ukraine’s Dnipropetrovsk region, setting fire to a local marketplace, regional authorities said.

Russia attacked three districts of the region more than 20 times with drones and aerial bombs, according to regional head Oleksandr Hanzha in a Telegram post on Saturday. Six were hospitalized including a man in critical condition, he added.

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Follow the AP’s coverage of the war in Ukraine at https://apnews.com/hub/russia-ukraine

Racing legend Willie Carson believes 23-year-old Donegal jockey Dylan Browne McMonagle is already one of the best riders in the world and has a huge future ahead of him

Willie Carson has identified a 23 year old Irish jockey as amongst the finest riders in the world.

The racing legend, who amassed nearly 4,000 winners during a stellar career, is well-placed to judge what separates good jockeys from great ones.

And he believes Dylan Browne McMonagle, the Donegal native who claimed his maiden British Classic earlier this month with a composed ride aboard Thundering On in the Oaks, possesses all the attributes required to join racing’s elite.

Speaking on behalf of Horse.Bet, Carson said: “Dylan Browne McMonagle is absolutely flying. What a ride he gave Thundering On at Epsom!”.

“To have the confidence to ride like that is brilliant – not everybody could have done that.

“To sit last in the Oaks and even to wait as long as he did before making his move requires a quality in the saddle that most jockeys don’t have. It was an excellent ride.”

A standout performer on the pony racing circuit from an early age, Browne McMonagle has progressed impressively since joining Joseph O’Brien’s stable as an apprentice.

After riding his first winner aged sixteen, he has established himself as O’Brien’s principal jockey and last season secured his first Irish champion jockey title.

Carson said: “He’s becoming one of the best jockeys around, right at the top table of those riding at the moment.

“He’s dedicated and all he thinks about is riding. He can only get better and he has a huge future ahead of him.”

A jockey is only as good as the horses beneath them, and Carson is convinced that Browne McMonagle has aligned himself with the ideal partner in O’Brien.

“Joseph’s a very clever guy, and he’s got his set-up sorted. Everything is in place for him to become one of the best trainers around.

“He’s been fulfilling his potential for a long time, and the Oaks was just another huge race on his CV.”

Located in Houghton-le-Spring’s Rectory Park, the artwork was created by artist Sally Anderson in collaboration with the community through the Cultural Spring Community Arts Research project.

The project is all about communities having time and space to develop genuine relationships with artists in order to co-create amazing artwork.

Ms Anderson said: “I spoke to several groups and dozens of people to find out what the park meant to them.

“I took along some arts and crafts activities to encourage them to talk to me and let me know their thoughts, their memories and feelings about the park.

“The groups included youth clubs, cake and chat sessions and general drop-ins so I managed to talk to people of all ages.

“So many had an affinity for the park and there were so many different responses to the question.

“I met some lovely people and enjoyed hearing their stories.”

The project, based around the question ‘What does Rectory Park mean to you?’, gathered input from residents through sessions supported by Acumen Buildings, Houghton-le-Spring Residents CIC, and Space 4.

After exploring ideas for community-led artwork, a mural emerged as the preferred option.

“That was phase one,” Ms Anderson said.

“The second phase was about co-creation.

“We spoke about what we could do with the views we’d gathered.

“Choices included some sort of activism or some sort of garden, but we chose a mural.”

Measuring around seven feet by six feet, the mural is painted on plywood and will be installed in the bottom section of Rectory Park.

Ms Anderson said: “Ideas for the mural came from a lot of people – inspiration came from a cherry tree in the park, and a rose garden.

“Further inspiration came from Houghton Feast and signage in the mural is designed like fairground signs as a nod to the Feast.”

The installation of the new mural will be completed over the coming weeks.

County Durham-born Ms Anderson studied art and design at New College, Durham.

She later pursued a career in performance art before returning to visual art during the pandemic.

She now runs art workshops and sessions and also facilitates groups and corporate workshops.

Residents wishing to learn more about Ms Anderson and her work can visit www.sallyandersonart.com.