Computer-generated imagery (CGI) has largely replaced physical models in major film productions these days, but the transition didn’t exactly happen overnight. For a time there was an effort to blend the physical and digital, which allowed animators on productions such as Jurassic Park to work with newer technology in a way they were familiar with. [Corridor Crew] took this concept a step further by manipulating digital models with nothing but a webcam.
Early in the production of CGI, animators found a purely digital workflow to be less intuitive than the use of physical elements such as puppets. Feeling the weight and touch of a miniature with joints and limbs made for a more natural animation, so they created the dinosaur input device to map movements of a physical model into a digital recreation.
Puppeteered humanoid input device for the film Species
Unfortunately for the future of dinosaurs made of motion sensors, none of these devices really caught on and the technology is essentially non-existent today. [Corridor Crew] decided to give the concept another chance with the application of newer motion capture research. Using just a camera and a small human miniature allowed for full animations to be made using one’s own hands. The motion capture plugin can be found here if you want to try it for yourself!
At the end of the day, the need for a stop motion intermediate was found to be unnecessary. That being said, there is some really cool tech discovered throughout its history. If you want to discover even more film tech, maybe try out an adventure making your own film camera!
IBM’s launch of its AI coding assistant “Bob” points to a much bigger shift in enterprise modernization. Across the industry, AI tools are being positioned as a way to make legacy systems easier to understand, assess and eventually modernize. And there is real value there.
Some of these tools can read thousands of lines of legacy code, identify deprecated APIs, summarize business logic and surface technical debt in minutes. For organizations carrying decades of operational history, that kind of visibility is a big step forward – but let’s not confuse visibility with modernization.
Jim Piazza
Chief AI Officer at Ensono.
Understanding how a system works is necessary. It is not sufficient. I have seen teams produce clean dependency maps, detailed code summaries and impressive technical assessments, only to realize the hardest part starts after the AI has finished scanning the code.
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Legacy estates rarely sit neatly off to the side. They are woven into the operating model of the business. They reflect years of process decisions, integration choices, compliance requirements, customer-specific exceptions and institutional knowledge that is often scattered, tribal or barely documented. Lovely little treasure hunt, except the treasure is risk
An AI model may identify an ageing integration point or highlight an application that supports a critical business process. That is helpful. But the real challenge begins when teams realize how many other systems, workflows and operational teams are connected to what looked like a straightforward change.
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In many large organizations, legacy systems are still in place for a very simple reason: they work. They continue to perform reliably under demanding conditions, even if parts of the surrounding environment have evolved, degraded or become harder to support over time.
That is why modernization is not just a technology exercise. It is a sequencing exercise. It is a risk exercise. And, done properly, it is a business decision.
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The multi-layer challenge
Every technical decision inside a legacy estate has consequences somewhere else. A change to one application can affect recovery procedures, audit requirements, licensing agreements, batch schedules, integration layers or support processes that have been stable for years.
This is where many modernization programs stall. Teams underestimate how interconnected these environments have become. AI can accelerate the technical assessment, but its real value comes when those insights are connected to the operational and commercial context around the system.
That distinction matters. Enterprises are moving away from broad “replace everything” strategies and becoming more selective. Not every legacy platform needs to be ripped out. Some systems need restructuring. Some need better interfaces. Some need to be moved. And some, frankly, should be left exactly where they are because they are doing their job reliably at scale.
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Workload placement has become much more nuanced. Moving a service to public cloud may improve scalability and speed up software delivery, but it can also introduce data sovereignty concerns, latency issues, cost variability or new support dependencies.
At the same time, keeping workloads on modernized IBM Z or Power environments may provide more predictable performance for applications that already run effectively at scale.
The real question is not, “How do we get everything off legacy platforms?” The better questions are, “Which systems genuinely benefit from relocation, which need to be modernized in place, and which can be extended through modern interfaces?”
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Without that context, organizations can spend a lot of money moving systems around without actually fixing the underlying problem. Congratulations, you now have the same complexity in a newer location.
We are already seeing this play out in enterprise environments where legacy platforms still sit at the center of high-volume operations. In one recent assessment, AI coding assistants were used to analyze more than six million lines of RPG code running on IBM Power systems, processing roughly 30 million requests a day.
The work surfaced technical debt and concentrated areas of complexity in weeks, giving the organization a clearer basis for deciding what to modernize, where to start and how to sequence change without disrupting core operations.
That is the practical value of AI in modernization: not magic, but better visibility, faster assessment and smarter prioritization.
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Why enterprise AI deployments are becoming more specific
This broader shift is also showing up in how hyperscalers talk about enterprise AI adoption. Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella has described the market as moving from “discovery” into “widespread diffusion.” In plain English, the challenge is no longer just building impressive models.
It is embedding AI into real workflows, real operations and real business systems at scale. That is much closer to how modernization actually works inside large enterprises.
The same shift is happening with AI models themselves. The industry still loves to talk about scale, but most enterprise teams are not sitting around hoping for a trillion-parameter model to save them. They need tools that help engineers solve very specific problems inside environments that are already complicated enough.
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In many cases, smaller, specialized models are proving more useful because they can be deployed in controlled ways, focused on specific tasks, and governed more tightly.
That governance point matters. Bringing AI into infrastructure operations raises very practical questions: What data can the model access? What systems can it touch? Can it recommend changes? Can it execute them? Who approves movement toward production?
That is another reason task-specific models are gaining traction. Teams can define exactly what the model is allowed to do, where human approval is required and how changes move through existing controls. In enterprise environments, that kind of control is not bureaucracy. It is how you avoid turning a productivity tool into tomorrow morning’s outage bridge.
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Where AI is delivering practical value today
The organizations getting real value from AI are usually not the ones making the loudest claims about it. They are applying AI to engineering and infrastructure work that already consumes huge amounts of time: investigating incidents, mapping dependencies, validating changes, supporting regression testing and understanding how complex systems actually behave.
A lot of that work comes down to giving engineers better visibility and helping them get to root cause faster.
AI models can help connect runtime anomalies to recent code changes. They can reduce the time teams spend manually tracing incidents across hybrid environments. They can support regression testing around older applications and surface integration dependencies that were previously difficult to visualize across multiple infrastructure layers.
That becomes especially important in environments where cloud-native services sit alongside long-established mainframe and midrange systems. In many organizations, the hardest problems show up in the seams between those environments, particularly when different teams manage different parts of the estate with different tools, different metrics and different operating rhythms.
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That is why the most useful AI deployments tend to focus on practical engineering work, not grand attempts to automate everything at once.
Organizations are seeing value in areas that are repetitive, complex and difficult to scale manually. Automated test generation can reduce regression risk around legacy applications. AI-supported observability correlation can shorten incident investigation cycles. Dependency analysis can help teams prioritize infrastructure work that removes bottlenecks affecting service delivery.
In most cases, AI is not replacing engineering judgment. It is improving the work engineering and infrastructure teams already understand well. And that is where the expectations need to be clear.
AI can absolutely speed up discovery. Work that once took weeks of manual assessment can now happen much faster. But that is usually the point where the real work starts.
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A model can tell you how systems connect. It cannot tell you how much disruption the business is prepared to absorb. It cannot decide which customer commitments matter most. It cannot magically unwind 25 years of operational dependency while everyone politely keeps breathing.
Technology leaders should view AI coding assistants as decision-support tools for broader infrastructure and modernization strategies, not as stand-alone solutions to legacy complexity.
IBM’s Bob announcement shows how quickly these capabilities are advancing, especially when it comes to understanding legacy code and helping teams work through large, complex estates. But visibility only matters if organizations can turn it into practical change without creating instability elsewhere.
AI can help you read the legacy estate. It can help you understand the risk. It can help you move faster. But modernization still requires judgment, sequencing and operational discipline.
This article was produced as part of TechRadar Pro Perspectives, our channel to feature the best and brightest minds in the technology industry today.
The views expressed here are those of the author and are not necessarily those of TechRadarPro or Future plc. If you are interested in contributing find out more here: https://www.techradar.com/pro/perspectives-how-to-submit
Copilot‘s next trick is diagnosing your PC’s problems, but the catch is that the assistant doing the diagnosing is itself part of the problem. Windows Latest reports that Microsoft is testing a new Copilot feature called PC Insights, which will let you ask the AI assistant natural language questions about your computer’s hardware and storage instead of digging through the Task Manager or Settings. The feature will reportedly allow users to ask questions like, “Do I have enough space for a 100GB game?” and Copilot will check the available storage to offer a response. Users will also be able to ask about CPU usage, battery health, etc., to diagnose issues.
What Copilot will be able to see
According to a Microsoft support document spotted by Windows Latest, PC Insights is expected to read CPU, RAM, and GPU usage, calculate free storage space, and check folder sizes for places like your Downloads or Documents. It will also be able to see connected USB devices, external drives, printers, webcams, and the state of the computer’s Bluetooth and Wi-Fi connections.
Shikhar Mehrotra / Digital Trends
The feature will reportedly be opt-in and will ask users for permission each time they ask Copilot a hardware-related question, unless a user switches it to “Always allow.” Microsoft’s AI assistant won’t be able to open individual files, and for now, it appears limited to flagging problems rather than fixing them.
Copilot’s own resource use weakens the pitch
While the PC Insights feature may sound helpful, it has one big caveat. That is, the app promising to flag what’s slowing down your PC has been found to be a resource hog. In its testing, Windows Latest found that the current Copilot app uses up to 1GB of RAM at idle and takes up quite a bit of storage as it ships with its own private copy of Microsoft Edge.
PC Insights could be genuinely useful for less tech-savvy folks. But it’s hard to fully trust a tool for spotting resource problems when it’s contributing to them itself.
The good news is that Sergeants Zach Allbee and Nik Yakel from Luke Air Force Base have helped to design a chute for the F-35A’s gun system that can at least reduce the chances of Class A engine mishaps. Among other criteria, a Class A mishap is defined as one where the damage costs more than $2.5 million. According to a video posted on the Luke AFB Facebook page, the system clips onto the jet’s existing adapter without any modifications and channels spent casings directly into an ammo can.
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This isn’t a fix that addresses known issues like complex maintenance or software issues. Rather, it’s a mechanical solution that helps to reduce the F-35’s chances of damaging $20 million Pratt & Whitney F135 engines due to foreign object debris hazards (FOD). FOD hazards are essentially small loose objects that lie undetected on runways and can be sucked into a jet engine’s intake. According to Luke AFB, the Project Z.A.C.H (Zero-point Ammunition Cartridge Holder) device costs about $98 and means airmen no longer have to manually catch shells being downloaded from the fighter, a process during which about 20% of shell casings are missed. These missed shells can scatter across the flightline, creating potential FOD hazards.
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The problem with spent ammo casings
The problem the Sergeants set out to solve is down to the way the F-35’s internal gun system is unloaded. Rather than unloading the ammunition by hand, the usual procedure is to use a mobile loader that loads the new shells while ejecting the spent shells. While this undoubtedly sounds like a whole “barrel” load of fun for the crews, the procedure can cause some headaches.
According to Luke AFB, the ammo can sits about six feet under the existing adapter, and during downloads, the spent casings fall freely toward it. This is the point when the “20% miss rate” comes into play. This is bad enough in ideal situations, but at night or when crews are under pressure, it can be all too easy to miss even one. And this could be enough — there will only be one winner if a brass shell casing meets a turbine spinning at thousands of RPM. Even the incredible F135 engine that powers the F-35 would suffer serious damage from such an impact.
The Project Z.A.C.H device addresses this directly. The chute clips straight onto the existing adapter without any modifications and funnels the casings straight into the ammo can, eliminating the one-in-five miss rate entirely.
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A little ingenuity goes a long way
While this might seem like a minor issue, Luke AFB notes that even a single stray shell casing can create an FOD with the potential to cause a Class A mishap. For a fleet already known for long-standing maintenance issues and delays, anything that reduces the risk of further accidents has to be a welcome improvement. Speaking to ABC15, Sergeant Albee said that after one instance when he was watching shell casings “go everywhere,” he thought that there had to be a better way. And so Project Z.A.C.H was born.
It began as a quick “proof of concept” design, with the prototype built from whatever materials were available — and a little help from a 3D printer. The concept worked, and with assistance from the base’s Detachment Nine engineering team, the design was refined into a more durable three-piece bracket and flexible funnel that eliminates the chance of missing shell casings. The final version still costs less than $100; for some context, this is less than the $131 cost of each shell fired by the F-35.
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While reducing the chances of expensive mishaps is one of the obvious benefits of the device, the other big saving is time. According to the Luke AFB video, the device has reduced the time taken to perform the task by about half — a job that used to take 30 to 40 minutes can now be achieved in 15 to 18 minutes.
The Samsung Fold 8 series is just around the corner, and with Apple finally entering the competition this year, it’s more important than ever for the Korean smartphone maker to deliver real upgrades. In a new editorial, Samsung CEO TM Roh said the company will continue to make its foldable phones thinner, lighter, stronger, and more immersive, while placing an even greater focus on personalized AI experiences. The comments come ahead of Samsung’s Unpacked launch, where the company is expected to unveil the Galaxy Z Fold 8, Galaxy Z Flip 8, and a brand-new Z Fold 8 Wide.
Samsung Wants Foldables to Become the Perfect AI Devices
According to Roh, the next evolution of AI isn’t about simply answering questions anymore. Instead, Samsung believes AI is entering what it calls the “agentic era,” where AI assistants can take action on a user’s behalf while leaving the final decision in the user’s hands. That, however, requires AI to understand the person using it.
Roh argued that foldable phones are particularly well-suited for this future because they combine a compact form factor with a large display that expands whenever users need more screen space.
“As AI helps us with more at once, a screen that flexes and folds expands what is possible. This is what makes foldables special,” Roh said.
Image: Amanz
Samsung says it has spent years refining its foldable lineup by making devices slimmer, lighter, and more durable, and that trend will continue with future Galaxy foldables.
Beyond hardware, Roh also highlighted Samsung’s broader AI strategy. Rather than treating smartphones as standalone devices, Samsung wants AI to work seamlessly across its ecosystem of Galaxy phones, tablets, smartwatches, TVs, and smart home appliances. The idea is for AI to quietly connect these devices in the background, making everyday tasks feel more natural instead of forcing users to switch between separate apps and services.
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Beyond that, Roh pointed to Samsung Knox as the foundation of the company’s AI strategy, explaining that the security platform now protects not only individual Galaxy devices but also the information shared between them. According to Samsung, sensitive personal data will remain on the device whenever possible, allowing users to better understand how Galaxy AI works while maintaining control over their information.
A reliable mobile carrier is essential to our day-to-day life. We need access to calls, texts and the internet for pretty much everything. You likely have an opinion about your cellphone plan, and we want to hear about it.
This month, we’re asking which mobile carrier you rely on. You can take our two-minute survey to share your experience on your plan’s reliability, speed, value and customer service. The top picks will make it to our roundup, so be sure to check back in a few weeks to see if your favorite made the list.
Why we want to hear from you
Advertised speeds and coverage maps don’t tell the whole story. What matters is how your signal holds up in crowded spaces, on a road trip or even at home, and we want to know about your experience.
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“It’s easy to get overwhelmed with specs, especially when you’re comparing phone plan features, but the real test is whether your service is working as you expect or getting in your way,” said Jeff Carlson, CNET senior writer. “With so many variables — your phone model, the cell towers in your area, even obstructions like buildings and trees — each person’s experience is going to be different.”
Whether you’re on a national network or a budget mobile virtual network operator, you can help other CNET readers find a reliable carrier by sharing your thoughts.
How to make your voice heard
This survey is open through the end of July and takes only a few minutes to complete. After we gather enough information, we’ll crunch the numbers and publish the winners.
Need a refresher on mobile carriers? Check out our list of the best cellphone plans to see what CNET editors think.
Pickup trucks are getting expensive as the vehicle segment grows in popularity in the U.S. market. The Ford F-150 is one of the best-selling truck models in America, but it isn’t the only option out there. The Ram 1500 and Toyota Tundra are also pickup trucks available at around the same price, starting at an MSRP of $44,820 and $43,455 respectively.
Let’s start with what’s under the hood. The Ram 1500 has three engine options in 2026: a mild hybrid V6, a back-after-popular-demand Hemi V8, or the twin-turbo Hurricane inline-six. With the newly-returned Hemi, you get 395 horsepower and can reach 60 miles per hour in 6 seconds. The turbocharged Hurricane — recommended in our review of the 1500 — makes 420 or 540 horsepower (if you go for the Limited 4×4 Crew Cab), which gets you to 60 mph in either 4.9 seconds or 4.2 seconds. The Ram 1500 also comes with both rear and four-wheel drive.
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Meanwhile, the Tundra has a 3.4-liter twin-turbo i-Force V6. The base model’s version has 348 hp and a 60 mph sprint of 6.5 seconds. Every other trim has 389 hp and can reach 60 mph in 6.1 seconds. The most powerful setup is the i-Force Max, a hybrid option that adds an electric motor and battery for a combined 437 hp. This can get you to that 60 mph in as little as 5.7 seconds. This makes the Ram 1500 the more powerful option of the two, but owning a pickup is about more than raw horsepower.
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Ram 1500 vs. Toyota Tundra: Towing and payload capacity
This may be the most important comparison between the two pickup trucks — at least if you’re planning to put yours to work. The Ram 1500 has a maximum towing capacity of 11,610 pounds when equipped with the Hurricane I6, while the rear-wheel drive Tundra SR 5 raises that a bit with 12,000 pounds. While this is not much compared to other pickup trucks out there — the Ford F-150 can get up to 13,500 pounds with the right configuration — it’s enough to bring a small camper on a weekend trip or get your boat to and from the water.
The Ram 1500’s total payload depends on its trim and cab configurations. At the top of the list, the 1500 Tradesman Quad Cab has a max payload of 2,370 pounds. This is far more than the top-rated Tundra SR 5, which has a maximum payload of just 1,940 pounds. This limitation could make the Ram 1500 a better choice if you need your pickup to put in some heavy hauling in the truck bed. However, the Tundra — which comes in a choice of 65.6, 77.6, and 96.5-inch bed lengths — offers a wider variety of options, whereas the Ram 1500 only comes in 67.4 and 76.3-inch sizes.
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Ram 1500 vs. Toyota Tundra: Fuel efficiency and interior design
Now let’s go over the drive itself. A 2025 two-wheel drive Ram 1500 with the base 3.6-liter V6 has an EPA-rated fuel economy of 20 miles per gallon in the city and 25 mpg on the highway, for a combined 22 mpg. The 2025 Toyota Tundra’s fuel economy — for the 3.4-liter V6 rear wheel drive model — is 18 mpg in the city and 23 mpg on the highway, for a combined 20 mpg.
The Ram 1500 has been praised for its spacious and comfortable interior that feels a bit luxurious for the price. Most trims even have heated and ventilated seats and a panoramic sunroof, making longer road trips a lot more enjoyable. The storage is especially noteworthy, with plenty of room in the cabin for more camping gear. In comparison the Tundra can feel a bit cheaper, but there’s plenty of legroom and storage. It’s more focused on function than fashion, offering extra storage options like a storage bin in the center console and an under-seat box.
While it’s not flashy, the Tundra will likely last longer than the 1500, giving it the edge in the longevity department. However, the Ram 1500 delivers a bit more on engine power, speed, payload capacity, fuel efficiency, and interior comfort. In the end, it depends what you need in a pickup — the 1500 offers more workhorse capability but the Tundra is a trusty pickup for urban living.
Elon Musk takes a bow at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in May 2020 after the launch of SpaceX’s Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission, which carried two astronauts to the International Space Station, about 250 miles up, and a world away from Mars. (GeekWire Photo / Kevin Lisota)
Ever since its founding, SpaceX has fixed upon a single idea: Elon Musk’s vision of colonizing Mars. Everything the company does is geared to that foundational goal.
Two years ago, Musk posted on X that there could be a city on Mars within 20 years, “but for sure in 30.”
“Civilization secured,” he added, implying that even if our troubled lives here on Earth come to some catastrophic end in the coming decades, don’t worry, humans will endure on Mars.
Yet the work of scientists studying Mars suggests that it’s far-fetched, perhaps delusional, to think a human colony could be established there. You don’t need to be a billionaire or a rocket scientist to realize Musk’s timeframe is certainly a fantasy; there won’t be a city on Mars in his lifetime or that of his children or his grandchildren. Think many, many decades at best. But more likely, never.
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Retail investors rushed to buy SpaceX stock after the IPO in June. Though the share price has already fallen back below where it was that day, many see it as a long-term investment. The reality is that the improbability of the Mars project shadows SpaceX’s long-term future.
SpaceX’s Starship, the rocket Musk is counting on to reach Mars, lifts off in a test flight in Texas in 2024. (Steve Jurvetson / CC BY 2.0)
While humans will at some point likely overcome the massively daunting engineering and logistics challenges of getting to Mars and even staying for some time, there’s no technology available to form a permanent settlement there.
Musk may be excused as being playful with his time scale.
“Oh, Elon is famously bad at giving time estimates,” said Erika DeBenedictis, a biological engineer and Mars scientist, founder of Pioneer Labs, which is researching how to grow plants on Mars. “Things always take longer than he says, but they do tend to happen.”
Musk has been quite specific. Last year, he said SpaceX had a 50:50 chance of sending its first uncrewed Starships toward Mars in 2026, with crewed landings to follow “as soon as 2029, although 2031 is more likely,” he posted on X.
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Then, this February, he said SpaceX would build a city on the moon first and start building a Mars city “in about 5 to 7 years.”
While his targets and timing keep moving, the problems go deeper than that. The question is not when humanity will expand beyond Earth, but whether it ever will.
Establishing a city on Mars depends crucially on a concept called “terraforming,” which means physically transforming the planet’s surface environment into something resembling that of Earth, at least partially hospitable for humans.
To DeBenedictis, the sterile science fiction notion of people confined inside glass domes, looking out upon a forbiddingly bleak landscape and living off protein shakes and dried food, is deeply unappealing. “I wouldn’t want it and I wouldn’t want it for my daughter,” she said. “It just seems terrible.”
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“It doesn’t have to be that way,” she adds. “I want the planet to be green.”
DeBenedictis concedes at the outset of an interview that this is “probably impossible,” though in the tone of someone who lives to chase the impossible.
In contrast, Musk glibly mentions terraforming as if it were within reach. In truth, science has only highly conjectural ideas about how it might be done. The hypothetical options scientists are researching now, if they work at all, will take many decades if not centuries to make Mars habitable. And they may never work.
A titanic ambition
Despite this, investment bankers and those with pre-IPO access were primed to ride the coattails of Musk’s colossal wealth for a big payout on SpaceX’s Wall Street launch day. Musk supercharged the June IPO by absorbing his xAI project into SpaceX. The IPO filing positioned xAI as a $26.5 trillion market opportunity, dwarfing all the other business segments of SpaceX, which the filing pegged at a mere $2 trillion. What’s an IPO without a transcendent AI promise these days?
Wall Street weighed only Musk’s entrepreneurial success and his ability to conjure the future and spin financial dreams. The Economist in May called Musk’s risk-taking and mobilizing of resources “capitalism at its most remarkable.”
For Wall Street, that made the SpaceX IPO a surefire winner. The share price duly rocketed up and made Musk briefly a trillionaire. Though he lost that status when the share price subsequently slid, he’s still by far the richest man in the world with a net worth into the $900 billions.
That fortune is built upon the market perception that Musk can turn dreams into reality. Mass-producing all-electric, virtually self-driving cars was once a pipedream. Rockets landing on their tails graced the covers of 1950s science fiction novels. By force of will, Musk made both a reality. Whatever pipe he’s smoking now, shouldn’t we give his Mars dream some healthy respect?
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That dream is specified precisely on the SpaceX website: “A permanent human colony on Mars with at least one million inhabitants.”
A SpaceX facility in Redmond, Wash., where the company designs and builds its Starlink internet satellites. (GeekWire Photo / Alan Boyle)
Musk designed the huge Starship rocket to go to Mars. And when Musk first unveiled his plan for the internet satellite venture that became Starlink in Seattle more than a decade ago — the satellites are made in Redmond — he told Bloomberg Businessweek he saw it as “a long-term revenue source for SpaceX to be able to fund a city on Mars.”
Nearer term, SpaceX is to provide the lunar lander for NASA’s Artemis project that should return humans to the moon within a few years and lay the groundwork for a permanent moonbase; Musk sees it as a stepping stone to the true goal.
The problem is, Mars is not even remotely habitable. It’s deathly cold. There’s nothing on the surface but dust and rocks, in places some deeply frozen CO2. Regular dust storms whip the surface. The planet has zero vegetation; not a tree, not a leaf, not a blade of grass. The oxygen-free Martian air is unbreathable.
Venture outside without a space suit and you’ll die within a minute in the poisonous, low-pressure atmosphere. During unpredictable solar flares, cosmic radiation is a separate threat to life.
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Martian gravity, one-third of Earth’s, may deform the human body over time. Astronauts on the zero-gravity International Space Station must work out constantly to retain muscle strength. Even then, if they spend too long in space they must be carried from the space capsule after splashdown.
“I don’t see any prospect for there to be permanent settlements,” said senior NASA astrogeophysicist Chris McKay, who for more than 40 years has studied the possibility of supporting human life beyond Earth, and on Mars specifically. “Why would anybody want to live there?”
Bruce Jakosky, professor emeritus at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado, Boulder, who has studied Mars his entire career since he worked on the Mars rover Viking mission in the mid-1970s, says he thinks it will happen someday, but adds, “I have no idea when or how.”
“It’s far enough into the future that, once you get beyond, say, 30 years, you can’t tell the difference between that and infinity into the future,” Jakosky said.
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That’s scientific realism. Buzz Lightyear talks about getting to infinity and beyond, but he’s a toy.
What’s really achievable on Mars
Despite the cold facts, Musk has so successfully sold the notion that if he put out a call for volunteers for the first Starship mission to Mars, hundreds of space scientists, enthusiasts, adventurers and Musk fanbros would eagerly sign up.
Indeed, he already has a Mars mission volunteer. On the launch webcast of SpaceX’s latest and largest Starship rocket in late May, a presenter introduced cryptocurrency billionaire and civilian astronaut Chun Wang, revealing that he’s been tapped to lead the first crewed flyby mission to Mars at some unspecified future date — a round trip of about two years, going there and back without landing on the surface.
And yes, it’s inevitable humans will get to Mars one day. Crewed spacecraft may land on Mars within a couple of decades.
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The first astronauts to land will plan to explore the surface and hopefully return in triumph two years later, the next occasion when the Mars solar orbit again aligns with Earth. DeBenedictis dismissively describes this as the “expensive camping trip” phase of exploration, “mostly for the photo opp.”
Decades from now, humans may take a much harder, more substantive step: establishing a scientific base on Mars; we have such bases in Antarctica today. Researchers could rotate in and out every couple of years.
Creating a permanent colony on Mars is something far different. It implies lifetime commitments and subsequent generations growing up and building their lives there. As Elton John sang, “Mars ain’t the kind of place to raise your kids. In fact, it’s cold as hell. And there’s no one there to raise them if you did.”
A child born on Mars — a Martian! — would likely adapt to the low gravity as it developed. We have zero data on the physical consequences. Such a child could grow up so different in muscular and skeletal strength that he or she would be unable to walk on Earth.
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“The first mothers that give birth will be guinea pigs,” said NASA’s McKay.
And yet, Musk has laid out a plan he insists can establish a human colony on Mars within his lifetime. After Optimus humanoid robots designed by Tesla do some advance exploring on the Martian surface, eventually “a few thousand” Starship rockets will head off together from Earth orbit to Mars, loaded with people and more than a million tons of equipment, dried food and supplies.
A SpaceX illustration imagines life at a future Mars colony, with a family watching a Starship from inside a glass dome. (SpaceX Image)
The SpaceX website offers a few images envisioning life in the early days of a Mars colony. A mom and two kids look out from inside a glass dome as a Starship lands nearby. The accompanying text on the website glances over some of the most glaring problems.
The extreme temperature fluctuations, from 70°F to -225°F, with an average of about -85°F? “It is a little cold, but we can warm it up.”
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The atmosphere of mostly unbreathable CO2? That’s good for plants; those don’t need oxygen. “We can grow plants on Mars just by compressing the atmosphere.”
That one-third gravity compared to Earth? “You would be able to lift heavy things and bound around.”
In a speech a year ago to employees at the Texas rocket site — the video is on the SpaceX website — Musk conceded that Mars is inhospitable but said terraforming will provide the solution.
“You can’t really walk around on the surface of Mars, at least as yet until Mars is terraformed to be like Earth,” Musk told the employees. “You need to walk around with a Mars suit and be initially in kind of like glass domes.”
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“But it would work,” he added. “And eventually we can make Mars into an Earthlike planet.”
Yes. Terraforming. How exactly could that be achieved? And how long would it take?
The science on terraforming
SpaceX did not respond to requests to grant an interview or to offer comment on the feasibility of Musk’s vision. But Mars scientists have studied the question. Edwin Kite, associate professor of planetary science at the University of Chicago, resident at the Berkeley-Calif.-based Astera Institute that funds futuristic science, is a leading researcher on terraforming Mars. In a paper published in April in collaboration with two dozen other Mars scientists, including DeBenedictis, he assessed the feasibility of the potential pathways currently being studied.
His paper begins with a bracing caveat: “It is unknown whether human civilization can thrive off-Earth.”
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But if we want to try living on Mars, the paper says, the first requirement will be to warm the freezing planet or at least regions of the planet. It lays out three possible ways to do so.
A SpaceX illustration imagines a future Mars base, with a central habitat dome, and pressurized greenhouses. (SpaceX Image)
Some local regions on Mars could hypothetically be warmed by spreading a translucent, high-tech blanket that would block harmful UV radiation but otherwise allow sunlight through to warm the Martian soil. The solar warmth trapped beneath the blanket, made from a plastic-like biomaterial, would melt ice under the ground. The heat and water would then potentially support primitive life forms, starting with microbes, bacteria and algae and, in time, plants.
However, even warmed, wet Martian soil is salty and laden with bleach-like chemicals hostile to life. No known micro-organism on Earth can survive in such conditions.
That’s where DeBenedictis’s research comes in. Her team — funded in large part by crypto billionaire and space entrepreneur Jed McCaleb, who founded the Astera Institute — is trying through selective breeding and genome modification to engineer new, hardier biological organisms that could get life started in the Martian soil. She is looking to microbes that could digest the bleach and others that could produce more of the bioplastic, allowing extension of the soil-heating blanket to a larger area.
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The idea: as the soil improves with this microbial organic matter, more complex organisms could take hold. Eventually, she says, “you could actually do things like grow potatoes in the dirt.”
DeBenedictis is super optimistic about biology turning Mars green. It could have a cover of basic plants “in my lifetime,” she says.
Pioneer Labs has been going for just two years. Its early-stage research is developing lab-grown microbes inside enclosed, stirred, heated, radiation-shielded vessels, like high-tech Instant Pots. It’s a long way from growing potatoes.
DeBenedictis notes that although the lack of oxygen means humans still couldn’t breathe outside, plants grown under these bioplastic blankets would produce oxygen through photosynthesis. That might eventually build up a breathable atmosphere on Mars at some point in the far future. Kite said the timeframe for that would be centuries, at least — “much longer than your civilization-relevant time scales.”
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The second warming method outlined in Kite’s paper: large reflecting mirrors in orbit around Mars, beaming down sunlight to warm a contained scientific base and the region immediately around it. The first reflectors would launch from Earth as solar sails, unfurling in space and flying themselves to Mars, propelled by sunlight.
Kite projects that doubling the sunlight reaching an area of less than half a square mile on Mars would require a large constellation of reflectors in sun-synchronous orbit, with a combined surface of nearly 300 square miles.
That’s a huge armada of solar sails heading off to Mars, all of which would have to be managed and maintained from Earth.
The third and most extravagant pathway being studied: warm the entire planet by forcing artificial global warming.
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At one time, it was hoped that local warming on Mars would release frozen CO2 in the ground as a greenhouse gas that would thicken the atmosphere and gradually warm the whole planet, the same process now warming Earth. But a 2018 paper by Jakosky dashed that plan. Analysis of sensor data and imagery from the latest satellites orbiting Mars showed there’s not enough frozen CO2 on the surface to provide significant greenhouse warming.
That paper concluded that “terraforming Mars is not possible using present-day technology.”
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To overcome that setback, scientists developed a new idea: pumping a few million tons of aerosol particles into the atmosphere, artificial dust manufactured on Mars from material in the soil. These clouds of dust, which would very slowly settle and have to be continuously spewed out, would warm Mars by trapping the solar heat.
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But the time scale for this is the longest under consideration. NASA’s McKay, in a 1991 paper, analyzed the timeframe for a greenhouse effect on Mars, based on how much of the solar energy reaching its surface might be realistically trapped. He calculated that it would take 100 years to warm the surface to an Earth-like temperature, and “perhaps 100,000 years” to eventually produce an oxygen-rich atmosphere from plant photosynthesis.
Kite, in an interview, said it would take “decades, at least” just to build the robotically-operated factories on the Martian surface that would manufacture and disperse the aerosols across the planet. His paper projects the cost of the aerosol project at $1 trillion.
DeBenedictis said this enormous investment and the extended time scale of planetwide warming make the more local methods the only practical options.
Yet even if any of these planet-warming methods work, that still leaves the other major problems. While machines can extract oxygen from the CO2 in the atmosphere and pump it into sealed indoor living spaces, the air remains unbreathable outside. The extremely low pressure and potentially deadly cosmic rays remain unaddressed. Inside and out, the low gravity will still, over time, exert its unpredictable physical impact on human bodies.
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In short, even if these wildly speculative, generations-long projects succeed somewhat in warming Mars, the result will fall disappointingly short of Earth-like. Dreams of colonizing Mars could still reach a dead end.
Concluding his summary of the various possible paths toward terraforming Mars, Kite notes that “no approach has been shown to be simultaneously affordable, safe, scalable, and to enable extending life beyond Earth.”
As one might expect from a group of Mars researchers, Kite’s paper urges that terraforming research continue, arguing that “a finding that no approach is viable” would at least curtail the vast expense and bring more realism to plans for large numbers of people to self-sustain anywhere beyond Earth.
SpaceX woos investors
SpaceX’s IPO prospectus relegated such downer conclusions to the “risk factors” section that offers legal cover in any such financial filing. The Mars mission and similar space endeavors, the filing said, “involve significant technical complexity, unproven technologies, or technologies that do not exist or may require significant advancement.”
Outside that CYA boilerplate, the prospectus offered investors a Musk-style sprinkling of high-flown stardust. The SpaceX “mission is to build the systems and technologies necessary to make life multiplanetary, to understand the true nature of the universe, and to extend the light of consciousness to the stars.”
In case that was insufficiently inspiring, the prospectus added a dash of fear, stating that humanity needs to spread beyond Earth to survive a potential planetary catastrophe. “We do not want humans to have the same fate as dinosaurs,” it stated.
When Musk addressed employees in Texas as the IPO opened trading on June 12, he gushed enthusiasm for his vision: “There have to be things that make you excited about the future, that make you glad to wake up in the morning because you can’t wait to see what happens next.”
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The risk to future funding
For Musk, maintaining such enthusiasm will be essential. For beyond the scientific and engineering challenges of the Mars enterprise, politics and economics could be showstoppers.
After the inspiration of the first human moon landing in 1969, the public quickly lost interest in subsequent Apollo missions. However scientifically interesting, the moon seemed to offer little but dust and rocks.
SpaceX’s stunning rocket launches and the recent Artemis mission that swung astronauts around the moon have reignited space travel enthusiasm in a new generation.
But interest could collapse again.
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Kite’s paper notes that “If in the future crew were lost and there were no obvious short-term financial benefits to exploration, society might cease to pay the high costs of sending people to space.”
Orbiting space satellites — chiefly communications, navigation, imagery, surveillance, and missile detection — will continue to rake in cash for SpaceX, much of it from the government. And Musk is well-placed to grab lucrative Pentagon contracts to deploy weapons to kill enemy satellites and defenses to protect ours.
But crewed space missions beyond Earth orbit produce no immediate applications. An investment sinkhole, they demand clear-eyed purpose, not delusion.
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In an interview, Jakosky — who like McKay, Kite and DeBenedictis fervently wants humans to be interplanetary one day — said he doesn’t buy Musk’s idea that if, say, climate change makes Earth less habitable, Mars can be a “back-up planet.”
Terraforming Mars is just too far out, he believes.
“It’s an incredible amount of money and resources that would be better spent understanding our own climate here,” Jakosky said. “It’s always going to be easier to terraform the Earth, bring it back to the current conditions, than it is going to be to terraform Mars.”
The realistic future
If the Mars project fades in the years ahead, Musk may try pivoting entirely to AI as the new vision — and investment draw — for SpaceX.
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In the meantime, the next big technical milestone, one needed just to reach the moon, never mind Mars, will be refueling rockets in space. If this and other hard-to-pull-off engineering challenges can be met, what’s realistically ahead for Mars exploration?
It would be much easier to build a city in Antarctica than on Mars but we haven’t done so. (Why? Oh yes, no one wants to live there.) Instead, we have scientific bases there, where researchers rotate in and out after a few months. Tourists visit Antarctica in the summer to see the penguins. At the largest U.S. base, McMurdo Station, there’s even a bar and a chapel.
NASA’s McKay foresees such a base as the future human footprint on Mars — at least for a century. Beyond that, who knows?
The low sun over the ice near McMurdo Station, Antarctica, in September 2020. Scientists see a research outpost like it — not a colony — as the realistic model for any human foothold on Mars. (Neil Crawn / U.S. Antarctic Program / NSF)
He has traveled to Antarctica for nearly 40 years, typically staying no more than two months, specifically to study the effects of the cold, dry environment for his Mars research.
But in the long, dark Antarctic winter, those scientific and military research bases largely empty out. There are no nurseries, no elementary schools, and no full-time residents.
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“I go there for a season and contribute to the research and then come home,” McKay said. “I don’t want to take my family there.”
McKay, who grew up watching Star Trek, still hopes that the “long, long, long-term vision” of humans on other planets will one day materialize.
“The problem with some of the current thinking is that it jumps from zero, right now, from one or two robotic missions to, OK, let’s set up a million people on Mars, with nurseries and kids and everything,” he said. “That’s crazy.”
“Humans moving into space, I think that is inevitable,” McKay said. “But it might be that it takes thousands of years.”
Vinod Khosla speaks at a fireside chat at AI House in Seattle in March 2025. (GeekWire File Photo)
Vinod Khosla has spent four decades building and funding companies around a single idea: hire the right people and get out of their way. He’s one of the most respected and influential investors in Silicon Valley, with a track record of big bets and a habit of not backing down.
On Saturday, a group led by the billionaire venture capitalist and his family agreed to buy the Seattle Seahawks from the estate of the late Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen for a reported $9.6 billion, which would be the highest price ever paid for an NFL team.
Khosla, 71, was born in Pune, India. He earned degrees from the Indian Institute of Technology in New Delhi and Carnegie Mellon before getting his MBA at Stanford, where he landed in Silicon Valley for good. After co-founding Sun in 1982, he spent nearly two decades as a partner at the legendary venture firm Kleiner Perkins before launching Khosla Ventures in 2004.
His firm now manages roughly $15 billion and has backed companies including DoorDash, Affirm, and Opendoor. Khosla was the first VC to invest in OpenAI, putting in $50 million in 2019. Forbes ranked him No. 1 on its Midas List of top tech investors this year and estimates his net worth at $15.6 billion.
But the Seahawks deal isn’t just about Vinod. The Allen estate’s public statement confirming the formal sale agreement described the buyer as “an ownership group led by the Khosla family,” and Vinod’s own quote in the statement was delivered “on behalf of the Khosla family.”
An NFL memo sent to all 32 teams Saturday, reported by ESPN’s Adam Schefter and others, identified his wife, Neeru Khosla, as the controlling owner, and said their son, Neal Khosla, “would be expected to have a significant leadership role in the ownership group.”
Neal may be the one to watch. He has described himself on his personal website as “an obsessive sports fan” who likes “bringing a quantitative and analytical lens to understanding the game within the game,” the Seattle Times reports.
He and his father have been San Francisco 49ers season ticket holders for 30 years, and Neal has consulted for both the 49ers and the Miami Heat. The Khosla family last year bought a 3.1% stake in the 49ers — the Seahawks’ NFC West division rivals — which they’ll now have to sell.
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But Vinod Khosla’s track record is the clearest window into how the family will approach its Seahawks ownership. Here’s what we know about him based on his long career in tech.
He focuses on people and talent above all else. “A company becomes the people it hires, not the plan it makes,” Khosla said in a 2016 Startup Grind interview.
“Experience doesn’t matter. The rate of learning matters,” he told Sam Altman in a Y Combinator interview the same year, using a football analogy (fittingly as it now turns out): “Pick for the best athlete, not the person who’s the most established wide receiver who knows how to run one pattern.”
At Sun, Khosla spent an inordinate amount of his time on recruiting. He personally reconstructed the org chart of competitor DEC to identify talent that the company could poach.
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Speaking at Seattle’s AI House in March 2025, Khosla’s main advice for startup founders was that their success will be driven by the people they hire and the questions they ask.
“The single most important decision by far you will make is the team you build,” he said at the time. “The more questions that get asked around your conference table, the better it will go, the faster you will learn, and the faster you will accumulate advantages.”
Vinod Khosla speaks at the Bloomberg Green conference in Seattle in July 2025. (GeekWire Photo / Lisa Stiffler)
“Talent drives everything,” he said at another event in Seattle last summer, the Bloomberg Green Seattle conference on climate change.
For the record, the Seahawks’ current leadership is ostensibly locked in: general manager John Schneider is under contract through 2031, and head coach Mike Macdonald, who led the team to its Super Bowl win in February, is signed through 2029, according to The Seattle Times.
Whether the trademark Khosla obsession with talent will translate into getting involved with draft picks and player personnel will be an interesting question to watch.
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He’s a Bay Area guy, not a Seattle guy. Khosla has lived and worked in Silicon Valley since earning his MBA at Stanford in 1980. Khosla Ventures is based in Menlo Park. The family’s 49ers ties underscore that this is not a homegrown owner.
Khosla has made a handful of appearances in the Seattle area over the years. His firm led a $11 million round for Seattle-based AI legal startup Lexion in 2021, and a $15 million round in Viome, the wellness startup co-founded by Seattle-area entrepreneur Naveen Jain, in 2017.
But he has no deep roots in the Pacific Northwest, which is a major difference from Seattle native Paul Allen and his family. How quickly the Khosla family builds a connection to the city and Seahawks fans may matter as much as anything they do on the football side.
He supports the people he picks, but tells it like it is. In more than 30 years on startup boards, Khosla says he has never once voted against a management team, even when he strongly disagrees.
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“I’ll argue with them, I’ll debate with them, I’ll push them, but I will not vote against them,” he said in the Startup Grind interview. The Khosla Ventures website puts it more plainly: “Once we pick a management team, we back it and don’t second-guess it.”
For a Seahawks fan base that watched Paul Allen’s sister Jody Allen take a largely hands-off approach as chair of the Allen estate, the philosophy may sound familiar, although Khosla’s version would also come with a willingness to challenge leaders behind closed doors.
For example, Khosla has said he deliberately takes positions he doesn’t believe in when coaching founders — not to mislead them, but to force them to think through risks they haven’t considered.
The Khosla Ventures approach, as explained on its site, is “brutal honesty over hypocritical politeness.”
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He’s not without controversy. In 2008, Khosla bought a 53-acre property south of Half Moon Bay, Calif., that included the only access road to Martins Beach, a stretch of coastline that surfers and families had used for decades. He locked the gate and blocked public access, setting off a legal battle that has lasted more than a decade and drawn widespread criticism.
The case has gone to the California Supreme Court and back.
“Every Generation Gets the Beach Villain It Deserves,” the New York Times headlined a 2018 story about the dispute. Khosla has argued it’s a private property rights issue. Critics see it as a billionaire putting his own interests above the public.
The takeaway: he doesn’t back down, even when public opinion is against him.
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He’s persistent in business, as well. That habit of not backing down has been consistent throughout his tech and investing career.
When Sun was told it had lost a critical early deal to a rival, Khosla flew from San Francisco to Boston and camped out in the prospective customer’s office until the CEO agreed to see him. By the end of the day, the company had signed with Sun, according to The Generalist.
When defective Philips monitors nearly bankrupted Sun, Khosla went home at 3 a.m. and was back by 7 a.m. for months until the crisis passed, he said in the Y Combinator interview.
During a 2011 appearance in Seattle, Khosla offered this take on betting big: “I don’t mind the low probability of success, but I better be impactful if we do succeed.” He was talking about startups, but the same idea no doubt applies to chasing another Lombardi Trophy.
First look: MIT researchers have built a small robot that can move through both air and water using the same wings – and switch between the two without any extra hardware. The work comes out of mechanical engineer Raphael Zufferey’s lab, where the team has been trying to replicate something that already exists in nature.
Diving seabirds like puffins use their wings to both fly and swim, even though air and water behave very differently. “Thinking of a wing that could operate in both [air and water] somewhat efficiently seems implausible,” Zufferey tells NPR.
The robot, described in a paper published in Science, weighs about half a pound and has a wingspan just shy of three feet. It’s built to function in both environments without adding unnecessary complexity, which shaped several key design decisions.
One of those decisions was to leave out legs entirely. In nature, many birds rely on their legs to help them take off from the water. But in a robot, that would add mechanical challenges the team wanted to avoid. “Instead, we thought, ‘can we go from the water straight to the air simply with the wings themselves?’” Zufferey says.
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The robot’s wings also differ from those of real diving birds. Many diving birds fold their wings underwater, but adding that feature would have meant more joints and motors. “You need to add joints, you need to add motors. So instead we rely on wing flexibility,” he says.
The wings are made from translucent nylon fabric reinforced with carbon fiber struts, giving them enough flexibility to work in both air and water. They flap continuously – about five to six times per second in the air. To break out of the water, the robot ramps that up to about ten flaps per second to generate enough force.
The body design is just as unusual. The central structure is open, with its internal components exposed. Instead of sealing the entire system, each part is waterproofed individually. “So water floods the whole system here,” Zufferey explains. That approach keeps the robot light enough to fly and also neutrally buoyant underwater, so it doesn’t drift up or down.
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In testing, the robot can move from water to air in less than a second. Video shot at Lake Geneva shows a slight ripple on the surface before it bursts through and into flight.
Glenna Clifton, an animal movement biologist at the University of Portland who was not involved in the project, says the robot stands out both as an engineering achievement and as a research tool. “This is a beautiful robot,” she says. She adds that projects like this help researchers better understand how animals move. “The biology inspires the robotics, but then also the robotics are used to understand the biology.”
The team sees practical uses for the technology as well. A robot that can fly to a remote location, land in the water, and collect data could be useful for monitoring coastal environments. That could include tracking algal blooms, observing marine life, or studying shoreline changes.
On a single charge, the robot is estimated to fly for not quite four miles or swim for a bit more than a mile. Clifton says that level of performance across both environments is significant. “It is light and powerful and a monumental step in the performance at both swimming, flying, and transitioning between the two,” she says.
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The project took about two years to develop, and the team is already working on improvements. Future versions are expected to carry sensors for data collection and continue refining how the robot moves.
For Zufferey, the starting point remains the natural world. “You see that it has already been done in biology,” he says. “So that gives you hope as a robotics researcher. It tells you that it should be possible.”
Dyson’s Airwrap line of hair multi-stylers and dryers revolutionised the hair care market by showing that you don’t need to curl hair with direct extreme heat, and instead use high-speed airflow to achieve a similar result.
Of course, innovative tech rarely comes cheap, especially from a prestige brand like Dyson. The most recent Airwrap Co-anda 2x sells for a whopping AU$999, and the Airwrap i.d. isn’t far off at AU$849.
Other than the lower price, there are yet more advantages to getting the Airwrap Origin over its more expensive siblings.
The Origin uses purely manual tactile buttons to operate and you don’t have to worry about the device’s Bluetooth connection to your phone accidentally dropping out while styling (the newer ones have a companion app that can automatically set the ideal wrapping, styling and cold shot timings specific to your hair). You also have complete control, where you can manually override the speed and temperature as needed, instead of the automatic programming in the newer Airwraps.
The Airwrap Origin also now has the longer 40mm barrel attachment that measures 18.5cm to accommodate medium-to-long hair better, compared to the shorter 13cm barrel from its initial release.
While it’s tempting to go all-out on the Airwrap ID or even the Co-anda 2x, it’s hard to overlook the Airwrap Origin at this price, especially when you don’t need all the attachments bundled with the newer models.
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