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What are blockchain rollups and how do they scale Ethereum

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Ethereum can process roughly 15 transactions per second. That is less than a single Starbucks checkout line. Rollups are the technology that lets Ethereum handle thousands of transactions per second without sacrificing the security that makes it valuable in the first place. They work by executing transactions off chain and posting compressed proofs back to Ethereum, turning the base layer into a settlement court rather than a transaction processor.

The standard narrative says that rollups make Ethereum faster. This is technically true but misleading. Ethereum itself does not get faster. It still produces a block every 12 seconds. It still processes roughly 15 transactions per second on the base layer. Nothing about Ethereum’s consensus or execution changes when a rollup deploys.

What changes is where the work happens. Rollups move transaction execution off the Ethereum mainnet and onto a separate chain that can process transactions much faster because it does not need thousands of validators to agree on every state change. The rollup then compresses the results and posts them back to Ethereum, where they are verified and made permanent.

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The analogy that most explanations use is a court system: the rollup handles the day to day transactions (the cases), and Ethereum serves as the court of final appeal (the judge). This analogy is useful but incomplete. The more precise framing is that rollups convert Ethereum from a transaction processor into a data availability and verification layer. The base chain stops doing the work and starts checking the work.

Understanding why this matters requires understanding what makes Ethereum slow in the first place, and why the obvious solutions do not work.

Why Ethereum cannot simply increase its throughput

Ethereum processes approximately 15 transactions per second. The intuitive fix is to increase the block size or reduce the block time, allowing more transactions per block or more blocks per unit of time. Every first generation blockchain project that tried this approach discovered the same problem: larger blocks require more powerful hardware to validate, which prices out smaller node operators, which concentrates validation among fewer entities, which undermines decentralization.

This is the blockchain trilemma. You can optimize for any two of three properties (security, decentralization, throughput) but improving the third requires sacrificing one of the others. Increasing Ethereum’s block size would improve throughput at the cost of decentralization. Reducing the validator count would improve throughput at the cost of security.

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Rollups sidestep the trilemma by separating execution from verification. The rollup chain handles execution with a small number of operators, achieving high throughput. Ethereum handles verification and data availability with its full validator set, maintaining security and decentralization. Neither chain compromises, because each is optimized for a different function.

This is not a theoretical argument. Solana, which chose to optimize for throughput over accessibility, requires validators to run hardware costing thousands of dollars and processes blocks that are hundreds of megabytes. Ethereum validators can run on a consumer laptop. The rollup architecture lets Ethereum achieve Solana’s throughput without Solana’s hardware requirements by moving execution to a separate layer.

How optimistic rollups work

Optimistic rollups are named for their core assumption: transactions are assumed to be valid unless proven otherwise.

The process starts with a sequencer, a node operated by the rollup team that collects user transactions, orders them, and executes them in batches. The sequencer produces a new rollup state after each batch, just as Ethereum produces a new state after each block.

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Instead of requiring every validator to re-execute every transaction, the optimistic rollup posts the batch data to Ethereum and publishes a state root (a cryptographic hash of the rollup’s state after executing the batch). This state root is accepted as correct unless someone challenges it.

The challenge mechanism is the fraud proof system. During a challenge window, typically seven days, anyone can examine the batch data posted to Ethereum, re-execute the transactions locally, and compare their result to the published state root. If the results differ, the challenger submits a fraud proof to a smart contract on Ethereum, which re-executes the disputed transaction on chain and determines who is correct.

If the fraud proof shows that the sequencer published an incorrect state root, the sequencer’s staked collateral is slashed, the incorrect state root is reverted, and the challenger receives a reward. If no one challenges the state root within the challenge window, it is finalized on Ethereum and becomes the canonical state of the rollup.

This design is elegant because it moves the expensive work (re-execution and verification) off the critical path. In the normal case, where the sequencer is honest, no on chain re-execution happens at all. The cost of operating the rollup reduces to posting compressed batch data to Ethereum, which is dramatically cheaper than executing every transaction on the base layer.

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Arbitrum and Optimism are the two largest optimistic rollups. Arbitrum uses an interactive dispute resolution protocol that narrows the disputed computation down to a single instruction before re-executing it on chain, minimizing the on chain gas cost of fraud proofs. Optimism uses a non-interactive fraud proof system where the entire disputed transaction is re-executed in a single on chain step.

Base, built by Coinbase using the OP Stack (Optimism’s open source framework), has become the fastest growing rollup by transaction volume, driven by consumer applications and the integration with Coinbase’s user base.

How ZK rollups work

ZK rollups take the opposite approach: they prove correctness up front rather than assuming it.

After the sequencer executes a batch of transactions, a prover generates a cryptographic validity proof (typically a zk-SNARK or zk-STARK) that mathematically demonstrates the batch was executed correctly. This proof, along with the batch data, is posted to a verifier contract on Ethereum. The verifier checks the proof, which is computationally cheap and takes constant time regardless of how many transactions the batch contains.

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The advantage is finality. There is no seven day challenge window. As soon as the proof is verified on Ethereum, the batch is finalized. Users can withdraw assets from a ZK rollup to Ethereum in minutes rather than waiting a week.

The disadvantage is cost. Generating a validity proof for a complex batch of transactions requires significant computational resources. ZK proof generation is a mathematically intensive process that can take minutes for large batches and requires specialized hardware. This cost is amortized across all transactions in the batch, but it adds a per-batch overhead that optimistic rollups avoid.

ZK rollups are also more difficult to build. Optimistic rollups can support the same virtual machine as Ethereum (the EVM) with relatively minor modifications, which means existing Solidity smart contracts work with little or no changes. ZK rollups historically required developers to write contracts in specialized languages like Cairo (used by StarkNet) because the EVM’s instruction set was not designed for efficient zero-knowledge proof generation.

This gap is closing. zkSync Era and Polygon zkEVM have implemented EVM-compatible ZK rollups that can execute standard Solidity contracts, though with varying degrees of compatibility. Scroll, another ZK rollup, aims for full EVM equivalence, meaning contracts deployed on Ethereum can be deployed on Scroll without any modification.

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Blobs and the Dencun upgrade: the economics shift

Before March 2024, rollups posted their batch data as calldata in Ethereum transactions. Calldata is stored permanently by every Ethereum node, which makes it expensive. A typical rollup batch cost $500 to $2,000 in calldata fees during periods of high Ethereum congestion.

The Dencun upgrade introduced EIP-4844, which created a new data type called blobs. Blobs are large chunks of data (approximately 128 KB each) that are attached to Ethereum transactions but are only stored temporarily, for approximately 18 days, rather than permanently. This makes them dramatically cheaper than calldata.

The impact was immediate and measurable. Transaction fees on Arbitrum dropped from an average of $0.25 to under $0.01. Fees on Base dropped to fractions of a cent. The cost of posting a rollup batch to Ethereum fell by more than 90%.

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This matters because it changes the economic equation for rollup adoption. When layer 2 transactions cost $0.25, only users with transactions above a certain value threshold would choose the rollup over a competing chain with lower base fees. When layer 2 transactions cost $0.001, the cost advantage of competing chains largely disappears, and the security advantage of Ethereum settlement becomes the deciding factor.

Blobs are the first step toward full danksharding, a future upgrade that will increase the number of blobs per block from the current target of three to 64 or more. Each step in this progression further reduces rollup costs and increases the data throughput available for layer 2 settlement on Ethereum.

The sequencer centralization problem

Almost every major rollup today runs a single sequencer operated by the rollup team. Arbitrum’s sequencer is run by Offchain Labs. Optimism’s sequencer is run by OP Labs. Base’s sequencer is run by Coinbase.

This centralization creates several risks. If the sequencer goes down, the rollup halts. If the sequencer censors certain transactions, users cannot interact with the rollup normally. If the sequencer reorders transactions to extract MEV, users pay a hidden tax.

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Rollup teams defend this centralization as a temporary measure. Decentralizing the sequencer, by introducing a rotating set of sequencers or using a shared sequencing layer, is on every major rollup’s roadmap. But roadmaps are not deployments.

The mitigation is forced inclusion. Most rollups include a mechanism that allows users to submit transactions directly to the Ethereum base layer, bypassing the sequencer entirely. If the sequencer censors your transaction, you can force it through the rollup’s on chain contract. This process is slower and more expensive than going through the sequencer, but it prevents permanent censorship.

The degree to which forced inclusion actually works in practice, under the time constraints and gas costs of real world usage, is a meaningful differentiator between rollups. L2BEAT, the primary independent tracker of rollup security properties, rates each rollup on the maturity of its forced inclusion mechanism along with several other security criteria.

The fragmentation problem

Ethereum’s rollup strategy has succeeded in creating scalable execution environments. It has also created a fragmentation problem that did not exist before rollups.

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A user with assets on Arbitrum cannot directly use them on Base. A DeFi protocol on Optimism has separate liquidity from the same protocol on zkSync. An NFT minted on StarkNet cannot be sold on a marketplace running on Scroll.

Each rollup is its own chain with its own state, its own bridge to Ethereum, and its own ecosystem of applications. Moving assets between rollups requires bridging, which introduces delay (seven days for optimistic rollup withdrawals to Ethereum), cost (gas fees on both the source and destination chains), and risk (bridge smart contract vulnerabilities).

This is not merely an inconvenience. It is a structural problem that undermines the network effects that make Ethereum valuable. If liquidity is split across 30 rollups, no single rollup has the depth of liquidity that Ethereum mainnet had when it was the primary execution environment.

Solutions are being developed. Shared sequencing layers like Espresso aim to coordinate transaction ordering across multiple rollups, enabling atomic cross-rollup transactions. Interoperability protocols like Chainlink CCIP and LayerZero provide messaging layers that let rollups communicate. ERC-7683, a cross-chain intent standard, aims to standardize how users express cross-rollup transfers.

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None of these solutions are mature enough to eliminate fragmentation today. Whether the rollup ecosystem converges on a small number of dominant chains or remains fragmented across dozens is an open question with significant implications for where users, developers, and liquidity settle.

The security model differs in more subtle ways as well. In an optimistic rollup, security depends on at least one honest verifier watching the chain and submitting fraud proofs when needed. If every verifier is offline or colluding, invalid state transitions could be finalized after the challenge window closes. In practice, multiple independent verifiers monitor every major optimistic rollup, and the economic incentive to catch fraud (the challenger receives slashed collateral) makes this attack expensive to sustain. But the theoretical requirement is weaker than a ZK rollup, where the mathematical proof itself guarantees correctness regardless of who is watching.

The user experience implications of rollup choice extend beyond fees and finality. Wallet support, token availability, and application deployment all vary across rollups. A user who bridges assets to a rollup with limited DeFi protocol deployment may find their capital stranded in an ecosystem with few productive uses. The interoperability problem compounds this: moving assets back to Ethereum or to a different rollup incurs additional bridging fees and time delays that can negate the cost savings that attracted the user to the rollup in the first place.

What this does not cover

This article does not cover the internal architecture of specific rollup virtual machines. The differences between Arbitrum Nitro, the OP Stack, and StarkNet’s Cairo VM are significant and affect developer experience, performance, and security properties. Each deserves dedicated analysis.

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This article does not cover validiums and volitions, which are rollup variants that post data to a separate data availability layer rather than to Ethereum. These systems trade some of Ethereum’s security guarantee for lower costs, and the tradeoffs are nuanced.

This article does not address the token economics of rollup governance. ARB, OP, STRK, and ZK tokens each have different governance, staking, and incentive structures. Whether rollup tokens accrue value to holders or function primarily as governance instruments is an active debate with implications for investment decisions.

Practical checks before choosing a rollup

Check the rollup’s security stage on L2BEAT. L2BEAT classifies rollups into three stages based on the maturity of their proof systems, upgrade mechanisms, and governance. Stage 0 rollups rely heavily on trust in the rollup team. Stage 1 rollups have functional proof systems but retain upgrade keys. Stage 2 rollups have fully trustless proof systems with minimal centralized control. Most major rollups are still at Stage 0 or Stage 1 as of mid 2026.

Understand the withdrawal time. Optimistic rollup withdrawals to Ethereum take approximately seven days due to the fraud proof challenge window. Fast bridge services can accelerate this by fronting the funds, but they charge a fee and introduce counterparty risk. ZK rollup withdrawals can complete in minutes once the validity proof is verified. This difference matters if you need rapid access to your assets on Ethereum mainnet.

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Verify the forced inclusion mechanism. If the sequencer goes down or censors your transaction, can you force your transaction through the on chain contract? Check whether the rollup has a functioning forced inclusion mechanism and how long the delay is. A rollup without forced inclusion is a centralized chain with Ethereum branding.

Compare actual transaction costs. Rollup fees vary based on the rollup’s compression efficiency, batch frequency, and the current price of Ethereum blob space. Use a rollup fee tracker to compare the actual cost of common operations (token transfer, swap, contract deployment) across rollups at the time you plan to use them, rather than relying on historical averages.

Check the ecosystem. The cheapest rollup is not useful if the application you need is on a different rollup. Verify that the DeFi protocols, NFT marketplaces, or wallet infrastructure you plan to use are deployed and liquid on the rollup you choose.

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  1. What is a blockchain rollup?

    A rollup is a layer 2 scaling solution that executes transactions on a separate chain and posts the transaction data or a cryptographic proof back to a layer 1 blockchain like Ethereum. This allows the rollup to process thousands of transactions per second while relying on Ethereum for security and data availability. The term rollup refers to the way many transactions are rolled up into a single batch before being submitted to the base layer.

  2. What is the difference between optimistic and ZK rollups?

    Optimistic rollups assume transactions are valid and allow a challenge period (usually seven days) during which anyone can submit a fraud proof if they find an error. ZK rollups generate a mathematical proof that verifies the entire batch was executed correctly before it is accepted on Ethereum. The practical difference is that optimistic rollups have longer withdrawal times but are easier to build, while ZK rollups offer faster finality but require more computational resources for proof generation.

  3. Why do optimistic rollup withdrawals take seven days?

    The seven day window exists to give fraud provers enough time to detect and challenge an invalid state root submitted by the sequencer. If withdrawals were instant, a malicious sequencer could submit a fake state root, withdraw funds to Ethereum, and disappear before anyone could prove the fraud. The seven day delay ensures there is enough time for the verification game to play out. Fast bridge services can provide instant withdrawals by fronting the funds, but they charge a fee for this service.

  4. What are blobs and how did they reduce rollup costs?

    Blobs are a new data type introduced by Ethereum’s Dencun upgrade (EIP-4844) in March 2024. Before blobs, rollups posted batch data as calldata, which is stored permanently by every Ethereum node and is expensive. Blobs are stored temporarily (approximately 18 days) and have their own fee market separate from regular Ethereum transactions. This reduced rollup transaction costs by over 90% because the data storage, which is the primary cost of operating a rollup, became dramatically cheaper.

  5. Is using a rollup as safe as using Ethereum directly?

    A rollup inherits Ethereum’s security for the data it posts to the base layer, but additional trust assumptions apply. The sequencer is typically a single centralized operator that could censor transactions or go offline. The rollup’s smart contracts on Ethereum may have upgrade keys controlled by the team. The fraud proof or validity proof system may still be under development. L2BEAT’s stage classification system rates these properties. A Stage 2 rollup with a fully decentralized proof system approaches Ethereum’s security level. Most rollups today are not at Stage 2.

  6. What happens if a rollup’s sequencer goes offline?

    If the sequencer goes offline, new transactions on the rollup cannot be processed through the normal channel. However, most rollups include a forced inclusion mechanism that allows users to submit transactions directly to the rollup’s smart contract on Ethereum, bypassing the sequencer. This is slower and more expensive than normal operation, but it prevents the sequencer outage from permanently locking user funds. The quality and accessibility of forced inclusion mechanisms varies significantly between rollups.

  7. Why are there so many different rollups?

    The rollup framework is modular and open source, which makes it relatively easy to launch a new rollup. The OP Stack (from Optimism) and Arbitrum Orbit both allow developers to deploy custom rollups with pre-built infrastructure. Different rollups optimize for different use cases: some target DeFi, others target gaming, others target enterprise applications. However, the proliferation of rollups has created fragmentation problems including split liquidity, bridging complexity, and user confusion.

  8. Which rollup should I use?

    The best rollup depends on what you want to do. For DeFi with the deepest liquidity, Arbitrum currently leads. For consumer applications integrated with Coinbase, Base is dominant. For applications that prioritize fast finality and do not want seven day withdrawal delays, ZK rollups like zkSync Era or StarkNet are worth considering. Compare current transaction costs, check that the applications you need are deployed, and verify the rollup’s security stage on L2BEAT before committing significant assets.

Disclaimer: This article is for informational and educational purposes only. It does not constitute financial, investment, or legal advice. Cryptocurrency markets are volatile and carry significant risk. Always conduct your own research before making investment decisions.

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Stock Market Today: Dow Rises On CPI Inflation Report; Nvidia Partner CoreWeave Soars

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Stock Market Today: Dow Down After Surprise Jobs Reading; Cloudflare Soars

Futures for the Dow Jones Industrial Average and the other major stock indexes traded higher Wednesday, as Wall Street reacted to a key inflation report. Meanwhile, Nvidia (NVDA) partner CoreWeave (CRWV) was a big earnings winner on the stock market today. Ahead of Wednesday’s open, Dow futures rose 0.3%, as S&P 500 futures moved up 0.4%. Nasdaq-100 futures climbed 0.8%…

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CPI Inflation Data Cools As Expected, May Keep Fed Rate Hikes On Hold (Live Coverage)

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Federal Reserve Building stock market

Consumer price index data largely matched expectations of a retreating inflation threat but may keep alive the possibility of a Federal Reserve rate hike in September following Friday’s weak July jobs reports. Ahead of the report, odds of a tightening stood just below 50%. Technology goods were among the categories seeing firmer prices, thanks partly to Apple (AAPL). S&P 500…

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US Inflation Meets Forecasts, Keeping Bitcoin’s Fed Bet Alive

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US Inflation Meets Forecasts, Keeping Bitcoin’s Fed Bet Alive

The latest U.S. inflation data landed exactly where economists expected, removing the immediate risk of an upside surprise and leaving cryptocurrency investors focused on what the Federal Reserve does next.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported Wednesday that the Consumer Price Index (CPI) rose 3.4% year-over-year in July, matching consensus estimates while slowing from June’s 3.5%. Core CPI, which excludes volatile food and energy prices, also met expectations at 2.5% year-over-year, down from 2.6% previously.

Inflation Meets Expectations

Markets entered the release treating July’s CPI report as one of the most important macroeconomic events before the Federal Reserve’s September policy meeting.

Economists broadly expected headline inflation to cool to 3.4%, while core inflation was forecast to ease to 2.5% after June’s surprisingly soft report. The data ultimately delivered exactly that outcome, suggesting inflation continues to moderate without producing another significant downside surprise.

Because the figures aligned with expectations, investors are likely to shift their attention from the headline numbers toward what they mean for future monetary policy rather than reacting to an unexpected inflation shock.

Fed Outlook Remains the Main Driver

The inflation report arrives as investors remain divided over whether the Federal Reserve will keep interest rates unchanged or deliver another quarter-point increase at its September meeting.

Fed Chair Kevin Warsh has repeatedly emphasized that policy decisions will remain data dependent while reaffirming the central bank’s commitment to returning inflation to its 2% target. Recent weakness in the U.S. labor market has already reduced expectations for another rate hike, making inflation reports increasingly important for policymakers.

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An in-line CPI reading neither strengthens nor weakens the case for immediate policy tightening, keeping markets focused on upcoming economic releases before the next Federal Open Market Committee meeting.

Bitcoin Awaits the Market’s Next Move

For cryptocurrency markets, inflation data often influences expectations for interest rates, Treasury yields and the U.S. dollar—all major drivers of digital asset prices.

Leading into Wednesday’s report, traders viewed a hotter-than-expected inflation reading as a potential catalyst for renewed rate hike expectations and pressure on Bitcoin. Conversely, a softer print was expected to reinforce the view that the Fed could remain on hold, supporting risk assets.

Instead, the consensus outcome leaves investors waiting for the broader market reaction as Treasury yields, the dollar and Fed pricing adjust to inflation that continues to cool but remains above the central bank’s long-term target.

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What’s Next?

With July CPI now behind markets, investor attention shifts to incoming economic data and evolving expectations ahead of the Federal Reserve’s September meeting. For Bitcoin and the wider crypto market, the next major catalyst will likely be whether future inflation and labor market reports strengthen the case for holding rates steady or revive expectations of another hike. As long as inflation continues to move broadly in line with forecasts, monetary policy—not inflation surprises—is likely to remain the dominant driver of crypto market sentiment.

The post US Inflation Meets Forecasts, Keeping Bitcoin’s Fed Bet Alive appeared first on BeInCrypto.

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Chicago Fed President Flags Inflation Concerns, Rate Hike On The Cards

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Crypto Breaking News

Chicago Federal Reserve President Austan Goolsbee has flagged high inflation as a major challenge for the US. Inflation remains well above the Federal Reserve’s 2% target.

The Fed held interest rates steady in July. However, three officials dissented and backed a 25-basis point rate hike.

Inflation Is The Biggest Problem

Goolsbee stated during an interview with Wired that rising prices are the biggest problem confronting the US, calling them more damaging than current labor-market conditions.

“The biggest problem facing our economy right now is not the collapse of industry and the collapse of jobs; it’s that the prices have been rising too fast. We have an inflation problem, and people hate inflation.”

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Goolsbee also discussed employment and called the labor market “stable without being good,” highlighting the unemployment rate, hiring, and layoffs as key factors behind his reasoning. The Chicago Fed Chair suggested that market conditions have weakened but do not require the Federal Reserve’s immediate attention.

Inflation has remained higher than the Fed’s 2% target despite lower month-on-month price increases. June Consumer Price Index (CPI) fell 0.4%, while annual inflation dropped from 4.2% to 3.5%. Core CPI, which omits food and energy, remained unchanged in June but increased 2.6% from the previous year.

However, Goolsbee has not indicated whether he would support a rate hike at September’s Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) meeting. While the Chicago Fed President is not voting on monetary policy, his observations could fuel an ongoing debate around rate hikes among regional Fed Chairs.

Policymakers Divided Over Rate Hike

Policymakers are deeply divided over interest rate hikes. The Federal Reserve left interest rates unchanged following the July FOMC meeting, with Beth Hammack, Neel Kashkari, and Lorie Logan dissenting in favor of a 25-basis point increase. Kashkari, the Minneapolis Fed President, urged the Fed to raise interest rates as high inflation, combined with the ongoing US-Iran conflict, has complicated the policy outlook. He added that the uncertainty prevents the Federal Reserve from issuing firm guidance or promising rate cuts.

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Kashkari also warned that high oil prices could impact American households and businesses, adding that there was no certainty about when shipping routes through the Strait of Hormuz would return to normalcy.

St. Louis Federal Reserve President Alberto Musalem also supported a rate hike, arguing for pre-emptive measures before inflation pushes even higher. However, he did not cast a dissenting vote. San Francisco Fed President Mary Daly supported the Fed’s decision to leave interest rates unchanged, stating that more evidence was needed to determine if the increase was temporary or permanent.

Markets Look For Clues

The big question in the market is “will the Fed raise interest rates or leave them unchanged?” According to CME FedWatch, the odds are almost equal. Stubborn inflation and volatile job data have raised market uncertainty ahead of this week’s inflation report. Wednesday’s Consumer Price Report will give market watchers guidance on whether inflation is cooling. Traders expect higher interest rates by the end of the year thanks to US-Iran tensions. However, they are unsure when the Fed may raise rates.

Disclaimer: This article is provided for informational purposes only. It is not offered or intended to be used as legal, tax, investment, financial, or other advice.

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Risk & affiliate notice: Crypto assets are volatile and capital is at risk. This article may contain affiliate links. Read full disclosure

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Fidelity’s Ethereum ETF to Offer Staking and Quarterly Cash Payouts: Report

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A new report cited by Wu Blockchain informed that Fidelity, the entity behind the fourth-largest Ethereum ETF by AUM, plans to add staking and quarterly cash distributions to its FETH.

It added that the exchange-traded fund tracking the performance of the largest altcoin can stake up to 100% of its ETH holdings “under normal conditions.”

There will be no minimum requirement, but the fund will retain some ETH for redemptions, expenses, and other liquidity needs. It will retain 85% of gross staking rewards, and the remaining will be paid to the sponsor, custodians, and node operators.

The report further noted that net rewards will first cover fund expenses, with the remainder distributed quarterly in cash. It’s worth noting that the ETF may sell some Ether to fund distributions if necessary, the report concluded.

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Fidelity’s move comes after BlackRock debuted a new staking Ethereum ETF called ETHB in March. The first-day trading volume was north of $15 million and opened with $100 million in assets. ETHB is currently the fifth-largest Ethereum ETF, with $577 million in net assets, according to SoSoValue.

Fidelity’s FETH is a spot above, holding nearly $900 million in net assets under management, while BlackRock’s main fund leads far ahead with $5.6 billion.

Earlier this year, Fidelity tapped Ethereum to launch its own stablecoin called Fidelity Digital Dollar (FIDD), which will be pegged 1:1 to the greenback and backed by reserves.

The post Fidelity’s Ethereum ETF to Offer Staking and Quarterly Cash Payouts: Report appeared first on CryptoPotato.

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An AI Tax Could Be the Great Equalizer America Needs

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An AI Tax Could Be the Great Equalizer America Needs
—Alfieri—Getty Images

An idea that until recently would have been seen as radical—that the public should co-own AI—now commands bipartisan consensus

In June, Senator Bernie Sanders introduced the first AI tax in history, the American AI Sovereign Wealth Fund Act, which took up our AI equity tax framework. The bill proposes making the biggest AI companies owe the public half the equity in each company’s AI business, paid in newly issued shares. 

In the weeks since, OpenAI’s Sam Altman and President Donald Trump have scrambled to compete, offering their own visions of an AI sovereign wealth fund, which, unlike a tax, would be voluntarily created through the companies’ partnership with the government. Specifically, the ChatGPT creator is reportedly considering giving the U.S. government a 5% stake in the company. We believe this approach is a mistake—and a tax is the solution. 

The essential nature of a tax is that it’s mandatory, which is why a tax is the best way to secure the public’s standing as a co-owner of AI. Plus, the public supports an AI equity tax. Last month, a national poll found 69% of Americans in favor of requiring the largest AI companies to transfer half their stock into a public sovereign wealth fund. 

The fight now is over the terms of public co-ownership: how much the public gets, who must deliver it, and whether delivery can be enforced. Altman and Trump are negotiating those terms with each other. Whether the public ever sees any benefit from the equity stake to be taken in its name is what hangs in the balance.

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A deal between Altman and Trump would bind OpenAI to the current administration in the public’s name, at least symbolically. Yet the rights would belong to the administration, and the public would likely have no recourse if a later administration unwound the arrangement. 

That brings us to an idea that until recently would also have been seen as radical: the federal government taking ownership of companies through a tax. 

The Trump Administration has taken equity stakes in more than two dozen companies over the past year. The trend in those deals is that the rights belong to the administration, rather than being directly owed to citizens. And public dollars have to be handed over in exchange for the shares, putting the public on the hook.

Trump’s side of these deals follows a common pattern. His administration negotiates each stake company by company. In the case of Intel, government grants already owed were converted into an equity stake. In a mineral-rights deal, fresh taxpayer money was spent. And now, for something completely different, Trump is making early moves to accept AI stakes as donations. A government stake in AI companies “would be a beautiful thing,” the President says, and would ensure that “the American people can benefit from the success of AI.” Yet across Trump’s equity-acquisition deals, terms are established not by statute but through private negotiations, and the President or his agencies keep the rights.

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Two deals illustrate how this works and why we should be wary. Trump publicly demanded Intel’s chief executive’s resignation. Only weeks later, the administration had its stake, a position that is now worth tens of billions. And as a condition for approval of the Nippon Steel acquisition, the administration took a golden share in U.S. Steel: “I, President Donald J. Trump, hold the Class G Preferred Stock (Golden Share) in U.S. Steel,” the President wrote in the Federal Register. The issue in both of these cases: one person, Trump, wields unprecedented power. 

Altman argues a public stake is “the best way to share the upside of AI.” The company has reportedly proposed giving the administration a 5% stake, structured like the Alaska Permanent Fund and revocable whenever OpenAI chooses. The Financial Times reports the aim: clearing political obstacles by securing the administration’s financial buy-in. It’s a Trojan horse in which no one is fooled except the public. 

We can guess where the public’s best interests could be treated as bargaining chips. OpenAI and Anthropic are preparing IPOs and likely need the administration’s goodwill. OpenAI, for example, is currently under pressure from the government to limit GPT-5.6’s release—a constraint the administration might be persuaded to drop in exchange for a donated equity stake. The administration’s record shows it accepts equity as consideration for looking the other way or relenting. Yet none of these dealings inherently benefit the American public. 

In response, only Sanders has committed to actually issuing payouts to each American. With Sanders’ AI equity tax, there is no question mark about the public benefit of the tax. After all covered AI companies remit half their equity in newly issued shares, a public trust fund holds the shares, and the fund must pay out its returns to the public by statute. According to estimates from Sanders’ office, a 5% annual distribution would be about $1,045 per person per year. Since no public funds are used to buy shares and the bill specifically prohibits public bailouts of covered companies, the US public truly shares in the upside of AI. 

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The outcome of the midterms will likely determine whether Sanders’ AI equity tax advances, and thus the coming months may decide who owns America’s AI future. In the meantime, Trump and Altman may move ahead with their visions. 

In our view, one design courts more corruption and wealth consolidation; the other ensures that, if AI ushers in any prosperity, it will be shared broadly, transparently, and with public accountability.

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Why AI Agents Need Stablecoins

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Why AI Agents Need Stablecoins

Artificial intelligence is moving beyond chatbots and copilots. The next generation of AI systems is increasingly capable of acting on behalf of users—searching for information, purchasing services, managing workflows, executing trades, interacting with applications, and coordinating with other software agents.

But there is one major capability AI agents still need to operate effectively in an increasingly autonomous digital economy: money they can use programmatically.

This is where stablecoins could become especially important.

Unlike traditional bank-based payments, stablecoins can move value directly across blockchain networks, operate 24/7, and be integrated into smart contracts and software applications. For AI agents that need to make frequent, automated, and machine-to-machine payments, these characteristics could make stablecoins a natural financial layer.

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AI Agents Are Becoming Economic Actors

An AI agent is more than a system that generates an answer. An agent can be designed to perceive information, make decisions, use tools, and execute actions with limited human intervention.

Imagine an AI agent managing an online business.

It could:

  • Purchase computing resources when demand increases.
  • Pay another AI agent for specialized data.
  • Subscribe to an API.
  • Purchase advertising services.
  • Pay for storage.
  • Execute transactions according to predefined rules.
  • Receive payments for completing tasks.
  • Exchange one digital asset for another.

Each of these activities requires some form of payment.

If AI agents are expected to operate continuously and independently, relying exclusively on traditional payment systems could introduce significant friction.

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Bank accounts often require identity verification, geographic availability, banking relationships, business accounts, payment processors, and human-controlled authentication. Those requirements make sense for people and companies, but they can become cumbersome when the payer itself is autonomous software.

Stablecoins offer a different model.

Stablecoins Give AI Agents Programmable Money

The defining feature of a stablecoin is relatively simple: it is a blockchain-based token designed to maintain a stable value, typically relative to a fiat currency such as the U.S. dollar.

For AI agents, the important part isn’t simply the stability.

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It is the combination of stability + programmability + global accessibility.

An AI agent can interact with blockchain infrastructure through software. It can hold digital assets in a wallet, check balances, sign transactions according to its permissions, and interact with smart contracts.

That creates the possibility of a machine-controlled financial account.

Instead of an AI agent saying:

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“I need a human to approve this $5 payment.”

the system could be designed to automatically execute the payment when predefined conditions are satisfied.

For example, an AI research agent might have a wallet funded with $100 in stablecoins. It could spend a maximum of $2 per API request, $10 per day on data, and $25 per week on specialized services.

These rules can potentially be enforced through smart contracts, wallet permissions, spending limits, and other programmable controls.

Machine-to-Machine Payments

One of the most interesting applications is machine-to-machine commerce.

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The internet was originally designed primarily for humans to communicate and transact. AI agents introduce a new possibility: software communicating and transacting with other software.

Consider a network of specialized agents.

One agent performs market research.

Another analyzes financial data.

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A third provides computational resources.

A fourth verifies information.

Instead of every transaction passing through a human-controlled billing process, agents could pay one another directly.

For example:

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Agent A → pays stablecoins → Agent B → receives data → Agent A

The payment could happen automatically based on predefined conditions.

At large scale, this could create a new digital economy where tiny transactions occur continuously between autonomous software systems.

Why Stablecoins Instead of Volatile Crypto?

AI agents need predictable economics.

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Imagine an autonomous agent with a budget of $1,000.

If it holds a highly volatile cryptocurrency, the purchasing power of that budget could change dramatically. A service that costs $20 today might effectively consume substantially more or less of the agent’s available capital tomorrow.

Stablecoins can reduce that problem.

A dollar-denominated stablecoin gives the agent a relatively predictable unit for budgeting, accounting, pricing, and payments.

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That matters particularly for:

  • API usage
  • Cloud computing
  • Data purchases
  • Subscription services
  • Digital labor
  • Advertising
  • Automated commerce
  • Agent-to-agent payments

If AI agents are going to participate in real economic activity, predictability may be more valuable than speculation.

Stablecoins Could Enable Micropayments

Traditional payment infrastructure isn’t always optimized for extremely small, frequent transactions.

Blockchain-based stablecoin payments could potentially support smaller transactions with automated settlement, depending on the network and its transaction costs.

This opens the door to interesting business models.

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An AI agent might pay:

  • $0.01 for a data point
  • $0.05 for a computation
  • $0.10 for an API request
  • $0.50 for a specialized analysis
  • $2 for a completed task

Instead of purchasing a large subscription, an agent could potentially pay precisely for what it consumes.

This could transform the economics of digital services.

Rather than humans subscribing to software, software could dynamically purchase services from other software.

Stablecoins Could Give Agents Global Payment Rails

Another major advantage is geographic reach.

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Traditional financial infrastructure remains fragmented across countries, banks, payment networks, currencies, and regulatory systems.

Stablecoins operate on blockchain networks that can be accessed globally.

For AI agents operating across borders, this could simplify settlement.

An AI company in one country could operate an agent that purchases computing services from another provider, while a third-party agent supplies specialized data from another region.

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Stablecoins could provide a common settlement asset across these interactions.

The AI agent doesn’t necessarily need to understand banking systems in every country.

It simply needs to understand the payment rules of the digital network it operates on.

AI Agents Could Become Their Own Economic Identities

This leads to an even bigger concept.

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Today, an AI agent usually operates under the identity and financial accounts of a person or company.

In the future, agents could potentially have their own cryptographic identities, wallets, permissions, and transaction histories.

That does not necessarily mean an AI becomes a legal person.

Instead, it could mean that an agent becomes a distinct economic software entity.

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For example:

Agent ID: ResearchAgent-204
Wallet: Dedicated blockchain address
Budget: $500/month
Spending limit: $20/transaction
Allowed services: Data + computing
Approval threshold: Human authorization above $20

This structure could make autonomous systems easier to monitor and control.

Blockchain transactions could also provide an auditable record of what the agent spent and where the funds went.

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The Combination of AI + Smart Contracts Is Powerful

AI agents are good at making decisions.

Blockchains and smart contracts are good at executing deterministic rules.

Stablecoins connect the two through money.

That creates a potentially powerful architecture:

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AI → Decision

Smart Contract → Rules

Stablecoin → Value

Blockchain → Settlement

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Consider an autonomous procurement agent.

The AI determines that a company needs additional computing capacity. It compares providers, selects one based on price and performance, and initiates the purchase.

A smart contract could enforce the agreed conditions.

The stablecoin payment could be released when those conditions are satisfied.

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The blockchain records the transaction.

In this model, AI handles the intelligence while blockchain handles coordination, ownership, and settlement.

The Challenges Are Just as Important

Stablecoins are not a magic solution.

AI agents managing money introduce serious risks.

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Security

If an AI-controlled wallet is compromised, attackers could potentially gain access to its funds.

Agents therefore need strong wallet security, permission systems, spending limits, and transaction controls.

Hallucinations and Bad Decisions

An AI agent can make incorrect decisions.

If an agent is allowed to spend money autonomously, an incorrect assumption could become a financial loss.

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This makes human oversight and programmable constraints extremely important.

Smart Contract Risk

Smart contracts can contain vulnerabilities.

An AI agent interacting with poorly designed contracts could potentially expose its funds to unnecessary risks.

Regulatory Uncertainty

Stablecoins operate within an evolving regulatory environment.

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Different jurisdictions may impose different requirements on issuers, users, payment providers, and businesses.

AI agents participating in financial transactions could introduce additional compliance questions.

Privacy

Blockchain transactions can be transparent.

That can be useful for auditing, but it may also expose information about an agent’s activities, counterparties, and spending patterns.

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Future systems may therefore need privacy-preserving technologies alongside transparent settlement.

The Bigger Picture: An Economy of Autonomous Agents

The most important idea isn’t simply that AI agents could use stablecoins.

It is that AI agents could become participants in digital markets.

Imagine millions of specialized agents operating simultaneously.

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Some agents generate content.

Others analyze data.

Some manage logistics.

Others provide computing power.

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Some negotiate prices.

Others verify information.

They could continuously interact, purchase services, sell capabilities, and exchange value.

Humans would still define objectives, budgets, permissions, and constraints—but machines could handle much of the execution.

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Stablecoins could serve as one of the financial primitives that makes this economy possible.

Stablecoins May Become the Financial Language of AI

The next phase of AI may not be defined solely by how intelligent models become.

It could also be defined by what those models are allowed to do.

An AI that can only generate text is powerful.

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An AI that can use tools is more capable.

An AI that can independently coordinate resources, purchase services, and receive payments becomes something fundamentally different: an economic actor operating in the digital world.

Stablecoins could provide the predictable, programmable settlement layer required for that transition.

The combination of AI agents, blockchain networks, smart contracts, and stablecoins could therefore create an entirely new category of machine-driven commerce.

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The future internet may not just connect people.

It may connect agents that work, negotiate, transact, and pay each other around the clock.

And when machines start doing business with machines, they will need money that machines can actually use.

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Uniswap slides 9% as weak retail demand threatens key support

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Uniswap slides 9% as weak retail demand threatens key support

Key takeaways

  • Uniswap falls nearly 6% on Wednesday after declining 5% in the previous session.
  • Uniswap has launched Continuous Clearing Auctions on Avalanche, allowing teams to conduct on-chain token sales and bootstrap liquidity.
  • UNI’s social dominance and volume have fallen sharply, signaling weaker retail attention.

Uniswap (UNI) faces intense selling pressure on Wednesday, falling nearly 9% after recording a 5% decline the previous day.

The pullback comes despite Uniswap’s continued product expansion, including the introduction of Continuous Clearing Auctions on Avalanche. The feature allows blockchain projects to conduct fully on-chain token auctions and establish initial liquidity through Uniswap v4.

However, declining social activity and derivatives demand suggest the launch has not been enough to offset the cryptocurrency market’s broader risk-averse mood.

Continuous clearing auctions launch on Avalanche

Uniswap’s Continuous Clearing Auctions provide Avalanche developers with a new mechanism for launching tokens and bootstrapping liquidity onchain.

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The model is designed to reduce friction during token distribution by allowing teams to conduct auctions transparently through smart contracts. Projects can then connect their newly distributed tokens with Uniswap v4 liquidity.

The launch expands Uniswap’s presence on Avalanche and strengthens its role as infrastructure for token issuance, trading and liquidity management.

It follows the recent launch of the TradePools platform on Robinhood, which allows users to deposit USDC, USDT or ETH in pursuit of yield.

While these developments may support Uniswap’s long-term utility, they have yet to produce a meaningful improvement in near-term demand for UNI.

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Retail interest in Uniswap is weakening as traders prepare for the release of July’s US Consumer Price Index report, scheduled for Wednesday at approximately 12:30 GMT.

The CPI reading could influence the Federal Reserve’s next interest-rate decision and affect demand for risk assets. A hotter-than-expected report could strengthen expectations for tighter monetary policy, while softer inflation could improve sentiment across cryptocurrency markets.

Santiment data shows Uniswap’s social dominance fell to 0.08% on Tuesday from 0.19%. Social volume also declined to 40 from 152.

The sharp contraction indicates that UNI accounts for a smaller share of cryptocurrency discussions and is attracting less attention from retail traders.

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Uniswap’s derivatives market reinforces the decline in retail participation.

CoinGlass data shows UNI futures open interest fell more than 3% over the past 24 hours to $261.60 million. The decline indicates traders are closing positions and reducing their leveraged exposure.

Long liquidations reached $2.88 million during the same period, significantly exceeding short liquidations of just $1,950. The imbalance shows that falling prices have disproportionately forced bullish traders out of their positions.

However, UNI’s open-interest-weighted funding rate improved to 0.0016% from negative 0.0054% the previous day.

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The return to positive funding indicates that the remaining leveraged market carries a slight bullish bias. Still, falling open interest and heavy long liquidations suggest overall sentiment remains fragile.

Uniswap Technical outlook: UNI tests 100-day EMA

Uniswap is testing its 100-day Exponential Moving Average at $3.55, an important near-term support level.

UNI remains below the 50-day EMA at $3.65 and the 200-day EMA at $3.93. These moving averages create overhead resistance and reinforce the prevailing bearish structure.

The Relative Strength Index has declined to 40, placing it below the neutral midpoint of 50 and indicating growing selling momentum. However, the indicator remains above the oversold threshold of 30.

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The Moving Average Convergence Divergence indicator has also fallen below its signal line, while its expanding bearish profile suggests downside momentum is strengthening.

A decisive daily close below the 100-day EMA at $3.55 could extend Uniswap’s decline toward the 50% Fibonacci retracement level at $3.25. This level is measured from UNI’s advance between $2.31 and $4.57.

UNI/USD 4H Chart

A successful defense of $3.55 could allow buyers to attempt a recovery. However, UNI must reclaim the 50-day EMA at $3.65 to ease immediate selling pressure.

Above that level, the 23.6% Fibonacci retracement at $3.89 and the 200-day EMA at $3.93 form a significant resistance cluster.

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Until Uniswap recovers above these moving averages with stronger trading activity, the short-term outlook is likely to remain bearish.

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Coreum bridge loses 99.7% of XRP reserve in $200K exploit

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Coreum bridge loses 99.7% of XRP reserve in $200K exploit

An attacker drained 99.7% of the XRP reserve backing the Coreum cross-blockchain bridge on August 9 by conjuring fake evidence of deposits that fooled the bridge’s own operators into authorizing real withdrawals.

Nobody stole anyone’s private key to execute the clever hack. Instead, Coreum’s bridge liquidity account paid out 199,916 XRP worth over $200,000 across 94 transactions, each one carrying a majority of signatures from its own relayers. 

Hours later, Coreum was shocked to discover it held just 493 XRP worth roughly $500.

A memo was all Coreum’s bridge required

The relayer software watched the bridge account’s history for payments carrying a Coreum recipient memo.

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It never verified that payment destination. A seemingly valid memo existed, yet the destination was the hacker’s wallet.

Ostensibly independent operators reached identical conclusions and signed off on all of the withdrawals because they were all running the same buggy code.

Read more: XRP Ledger generated less than $400 in fees yesterday

TX confirms an FBI report

TX, a brand that absorbed both the Coreum and Sologenic communities in February, confirmed the incident, and admitted the software “incorrectly registered transactions that never actually delivered any XRP to the bridge as deposits, and minted bridged XRP on the tx chain against them.”

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The same statement said the bridge had undergone “multiple internal and third-party audits prior to deployment.”

It also conceded that bridged XRP on the tx chain “is not currently fully backed,” and confirmed a complaint had gone to the FBI.

The price of XRP dipped below $1 yesterday, its first sub-dollar print since November 2024. The coin has lost 45% of its value this year, and is 74% below its all-time high.

Got a tip? Send us an email securely via Protos Leaks. For more informed news and investigations, follow us on XBluesky, and Google News, or subscribe to our YouTube channel.

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Ravencoin hits record low as network exploit puts transactions at risk

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Ravencoin hits record low as network exploit puts transactions at risk

Ravencoin hits record low as network exploit puts transactions at risk

Mining pools controlling most of Ravencoin’s hash rate are building a competing chain that could trigger a three-day reorganization.

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